التدريب العملي ①①

(تسريب المياه في موقع العمل)

1. The problems you mentioned in your July letter have now been checked. It seems the wiring faults were the result of water dripping down from the floor above. The electrician who fitted the wiring in February says the wall was dry when he removed the old cables and put in the new ones. Still, we will organize the necessary repairs and close off that area.
2. Dura flooring is known as one of the toughest products of its type available, so we were surprised to learn it had worn down in only six months. For that reason, we carried out a detailed inspection. We found clear signs that the surface had been cut, most likely because heavy metal boxes were pulled across it. Our one-year guarantee covers our work only under “normal wear and tear,” and what we have seen here does not fit that description. I am happy to arrange for a new surface to be fitted, but you will need to pay for both the materials and the labor. May I also suggest that you tell your staff to use trolleys when moving heavy containers.
3. I am sorry about the inconvenience you have experienced, and I will ask the fitters to repair the damage as soon as I receive your confirmation that

(تسريب المياه في موقع العمل)

1. The problems you mentioned in your July letter have now been checked. It seems the wiring faults were the result of water dripping down from the floor above. The electrician who fitted the wiring in February says the wall was dry when he removed the old cables and put in the new ones. Still, we will organize the necessary repairs and close off that area.
2. Dura flooring is known as one of the toughest products of its type available, so we were surprised to learn it had worn down in only six months. For that reason, we carried out a detailed inspection. We found clear signs that the surface had been cut, most likely because heavy metal boxes were pulled across it. Our one-year guarantee covers our work only under “normal wear and tear,” and what we have seen here does not fit that description. I am happy to arrange for a new surface to be fitted, but you will need to pay for both the materials and the labor. May I also suggest that you tell your staff to use trolleys when moving heavy containers.
3. I am sorry about the inconvenience you have experienced, and I will ask the fitters to repair the damage as soon as I receive your confirmation that

(تسريب المياه في موقع العمل)

1. The problems you mentioned in your July letter have now been checked. It seems the wiring faults were the result of water dripping down from the floor above. The electrician who fitted the wiring in February says the wall was dry when he removed the old cables and put in the new ones. Still, we will organize the necessary repairs and close off that area.
2. Dura flooring is known as one of the toughest products of its type available, so we were surprised to learn it had worn down in only six months. For that reason, we carried out a detailed inspection. We found clear signs that the surface had been cut, most likely because heavy metal boxes were pulled across it. Our one-year guarantee covers our work only under “normal wear and tear,” and what we have seen here does not fit that description. I am happy to arrange for a new surface to be fitted, but you will need to pay for both the materials and the labor. May I also suggest that you tell your staff to use trolleys when moving heavy containers.
3. I am sorry about the inconvenience you have experienced, and I will ask the fitters to repair the damage as soon as I receive your confirmation that

(تسريب المياه في موقع العمل)

1. The problems you mentioned in your July letter have now been checked. It seems the wiring faults were the result of water dripping down from the floor above. The electrician who fitted the wiring in February says the wall was dry when he removed the old cables and put in the new ones. Still, we will organize the necessary repairs and close off that area.
2. Dura flooring is known as one of the toughest products of its type available, so we were surprised to learn it had worn down in only six months. For that reason, we carried out a detailed inspection. We found clear signs that the surface had been cut, most likely because heavy metal boxes were pulled across it. Our one-year guarantee covers our work only under “normal wear and tear,” and what we have seen here does not fit that description. I am happy to arrange for a new surface to be fitted, but you will need to pay for both the materials and the labor. May I also suggest that you tell your staff to use trolleys when moving heavy containers.
3. I am sorry about the inconvenience you have experienced, and I will ask the fitters to repair the damage as soon as I receive your confirmation that

(تسريب المياه في موقع العمل)

1. The problems you mentioned in your July letter have now been checked. It seems the wiring faults were the result of water dripping down from the floor above. The electrician who fitted the wiring in February says the wall was dry when he removed the old cables and put in the new ones. Still, we will organize the necessary repairs and close off that area.
2. Dura flooring is known as one of the toughest products of its type available, so we were surprised to learn it had worn down in only six months. For that reason, we carried out a detailed inspection. We found clear signs that the surface had been cut, most likely because heavy metal boxes were pulled across it. Our one-year guarantee covers our work only under “normal wear and tear,” and what we have seen here does not fit that description. I am happy to arrange for a new surface to be fitted, but you will need to pay for both the materials and the labor. May I also suggest that you tell your staff to use trolleys when moving heavy containers.
3. I am sorry about the inconvenience you have experienced, and I will ask the fitters to repair the damage as soon as I receive your confirmation that

(تسريب المياه في موقع العمل)

1. The problems you mentioned in your July letter have now been checked. It seems the wiring faults were the result of water dripping down from the floor above. The electrician who fitted the wiring in February says the wall was dry when he removed the old cables and put in the new ones. Still, we will organize the necessary repairs and close off that area.
2. Dura flooring is known as one of the toughest products of its type available, so we were surprised to learn it had worn down in only six months. For that reason, we carried out a detailed inspection. We found clear signs that the surface had been cut, most likely because heavy metal boxes were pulled across it. Our one-year guarantee covers our work only under “normal wear and tear,” and what we have seen here does not fit that description. I am happy to arrange for a new surface to be fitted, but you will need to pay for both the materials and the labor. May I also suggest that you tell your staff to use trolleys when moving heavy containers.
3. I am sorry about the inconvenience you have experienced, and I will ask the fitters to repair the damage as soon as I receive your confirmation that

(Asteroids)

1. Asteroids are small rocky objects with uneven shapes. They move around the sun, but they are closer to large rocks than to planets. Because of their small size, their gravity is too weak to pull them into a round shape. They also cannot hold an atmosphere. Except for a few of the biggest ones, asteroids do not have internal heat, so they do not show geological activity. The only way most asteroids change is through collisions. When a collision happens, an asteroid may break into pieces or form craters on its surface. If an asteroid comes close enough to a planet, the planet’s gravity may pull it in, causing an impact.
2. Scientists have discovered hundreds of thousands of asteroids in our solar system. Every year, tens of thousands of new asteroids are identified. Most of them are found between the paths of Mars and Jupiter, in an area known as the asteroid belt. Although this belt contains many thousands of asteroids, their combined mass is only about 4 percent of the mass of Earth’s moon. Asteroids formed at the same time as the rest of the solar system. However, the strong gravity of Jupiter prevented the material in this region from joining together to form a planet, pushing much of it either into the sun or out of the solar system.

   (Asteroids)

   Near-Earth Asteroids

   3. Near-Earth asteroids follow paths that come close to or cross Earth’s orbit. Because of this, there is a possibility that they could collide with Earth. More than 10,000 near-Earth asteroids are currently known. Small asteroids do hit Earth from time to time. An asteroid measuring about 5 to 10 meters across strikes Earth roughly once each year. Around one thousand known near-Earth asteroids are much larger, with diameters greater than one kilometer. In the past, impacts from large asteroids caused the death of many living things, and sometimes entire species disappeared. Astronomers continue to search for near-Earth asteroids so they can detect a possible collision early and attempt to prevent it.

   Meteors

   4. On a clear, dark night, you might notice a meteor in the sky, like the one shown in the figure below. A meteor appears as a bright line of light moving across the sky. People often call them shooting stars because of how they look. However, meteors are not stars. The light is produced when a small piece of matter burns as it passes through Earth’s atmosphere.

      Meteoroids

      5. Before these small objects enter Earth’s atmosphere, they are known as meteoroids. Meteoroids can range in size from large boulders to tiny grains of sand. Objects larger than this are called asteroids, while smaller ones are referred to as interplanetary dust. Meteoroids can sometimes travel together in long streams. These streams are leftover material from comets. When Earth moves through one of these comet trails, a meteor shower occurs. During a meteor shower, the number of visible meteors is much higher than usual for one or two nights.

(Asteroids)

1. Asteroids are small rocky objects with uneven shapes. They move around the sun, but they are closer to large rocks than to planets. Because of their small size, their gravity is too weak to pull them into a round shape. They also cannot hold an atmosphere. Except for a few of the biggest ones, asteroids do not have internal heat, so they do not show geological activity. The only way most asteroids change is through collisions. When a collision happens, an asteroid may break into pieces or form craters on its surface. If an asteroid comes close enough to a planet, the planet’s gravity may pull it in, causing an impact.
2. Scientists have discovered hundreds of thousands of asteroids in our solar system. Every year, tens of thousands of new asteroids are identified. Most of them are found between the paths of Mars and Jupiter, in an area known as the asteroid belt. Although this belt contains many thousands of asteroids, their combined mass is only about 4 percent of the mass of Earth’s moon. Asteroids formed at the same time as the rest of the solar system. However, the strong gravity of Jupiter prevented the material in this region from joining together to form a planet, pushing much of it either into the sun or out of the solar system.

   (Asteroids)

   Near-Earth Asteroids

   3. Near-Earth asteroids follow paths that come close to or cross Earth’s orbit. Because of this, there is a possibility that they could collide with Earth. More than 10,000 near-Earth asteroids are currently known. Small asteroids do hit Earth from time to time. An asteroid measuring about 5 to 10 meters across strikes Earth roughly once each year. Around one thousand known near-Earth asteroids are much larger, with diameters greater than one kilometer. In the past, impacts from large asteroids caused the death of many living things, and sometimes entire species disappeared. Astronomers continue to search for near-Earth asteroids so they can detect a possible collision early and attempt to prevent it.

   Meteors

   4. On a clear, dark night, you might notice a meteor in the sky, like the one shown in the figure below. A meteor appears as a bright line of light moving across the sky. People often call them shooting stars because of how they look. However, meteors are not stars. The light is produced when a small piece of matter burns as it passes through Earth’s atmosphere.

      Meteoroids

      5. Before these small objects enter Earth’s atmosphere, they are known as meteoroids. Meteoroids can range in size from large boulders to tiny grains of sand. Objects larger than this are called asteroids, while smaller ones are referred to as interplanetary dust. Meteoroids can sometimes travel together in long streams. These streams are leftover material from comets. When Earth moves through one of these comet trails, a meteor shower occurs. During a meteor shower, the number of visible meteors is much higher than usual for one or two nights.

(Asteroids)

1. Asteroids are small rocky objects with uneven shapes. They move around the sun, but they are closer to large rocks than to planets. Because of their small size, their gravity is too weak to pull them into a round shape. They also cannot hold an atmosphere. Except for a few of the biggest ones, asteroids do not have internal heat, so they do not show geological activity. The only way most asteroids change is through collisions. When a collision happens, an asteroid may break into pieces or form craters on its surface. If an asteroid comes close enough to a planet, the planet’s gravity may pull it in, causing an impact.
2. Scientists have discovered hundreds of thousands of asteroids in our solar system. Every year, tens of thousands of new asteroids are identified. Most of them are found between the paths of Mars and Jupiter, in an area known as the asteroid belt. Although this belt contains many thousands of asteroids, their combined mass is only about 4 percent of the mass of Earth’s moon. Asteroids formed at the same time as the rest of the solar system. However, the strong gravity of Jupiter prevented the material in this region from joining together to form a planet, pushing much of it either into the sun or out of the solar system.

   (Asteroids)

   Near-Earth Asteroids

   3. Near-Earth asteroids follow paths that come close to or cross Earth’s orbit. Because of this, there is a possibility that they could collide with Earth. More than 10,000 near-Earth asteroids are currently known. Small asteroids do hit Earth from time to time. An asteroid measuring about 5 to 10 meters across strikes Earth roughly once each year. Around one thousand known near-Earth asteroids are much larger, with diameters greater than one kilometer. In the past, impacts from large asteroids caused the death of many living things, and sometimes entire species disappeared. Astronomers continue to search for near-Earth asteroids so they can detect a possible collision early and attempt to prevent it.

   Meteors

   4. On a clear, dark night, you might notice a meteor in the sky, like the one shown in the figure below. A meteor appears as a bright line of light moving across the sky. People often call them shooting stars because of how they look. However, meteors are not stars. The light is produced when a small piece of matter burns as it passes through Earth’s atmosphere.

      Meteoroids

      5. Before these small objects enter Earth’s atmosphere, they are known as meteoroids. Meteoroids can range in size from large boulders to tiny grains of sand. Objects larger than this are called asteroids, while smaller ones are referred to as interplanetary dust. Meteoroids can sometimes travel together in long streams. These streams are leftover material from comets. When Earth moves through one of these comet trails, a meteor shower occurs. During a meteor shower, the number of visible meteors is much higher than usual for one or two nights.

(Sociology)

1. In general, studying sociology equips us with what sociologists describe as the sociological imagination. This concept refers to a special perspective for viewing the world through a sociological framework. It involves understanding our personal experiences by connecting them to what is happening in the wider social environment. Through this perspective, we are better able to recognize the social and non-biological influences that shape and affect our lives as individuals, as members of groups, and as part of communities. Sociological imagination encourages us to move beyond individual psychology and focus on the many social and cultural forces at work, including repeated patterns in people’s attitudes and behaviors, and how these patterns differ across societies, time periods, and social groups.
2. Studying sociology also helps us see how social forces shape our ambitions, viewpoints, actions, and even our personality. It increases our awareness of social problems and challenges. In addition, sociology encourages us to question and set aside personal biases, stereotypes, and ethnocentric ways of thinking. As a result, we become more thoughtful, open-minded, and respectful in our
3. Overall, sociology contributes to a deeper understanding of ourselves. The study of sociology can lead to greater self-awareness and personal insight. Through learning sociology, we gain clearer knowledge about the conditions that shape our own lives, as well as how society and its social systems operate.
4. As this understanding grows, we become more capable of influencing the forces that shape our lives. For instance, we may respond more actively to government policies and decisions, and we can also put forward our own suggestions, alternatives, and initiatives to help guide social change.
5. relationships with others and with different social groups. Learning sociology helps us develop a more humane, people-focused outlook that places strong importance on human dignity.

(Sociology)

1. In general, studying sociology equips us with what sociologists describe as the sociological imagination. This concept refers to a special perspective for viewing the world through a sociological framework. It involves understanding our personal experiences by connecting them to what is happening in the wider social environment. Through this perspective, we are better able to recognize the social and non-biological influences that shape and affect our lives as individuals, as members of groups, and as part of communities. Sociological imagination encourages us to move beyond individual psychology and focus on the many social and cultural forces at work, including repeated patterns in people’s attitudes and behaviors, and how these patterns differ across societies, time periods, and social groups.
2. Studying sociology also helps us see how social forces shape our ambitions, viewpoints, actions, and even our personality. It increases our awareness of social problems and challenges. In addition, sociology encourages us to question and set aside personal biases, stereotypes, and ethnocentric ways of thinking. As a result, we become more thoughtful, open-minded, and respectful in our
3. Overall, sociology contributes to a deeper understanding of ourselves. The study of sociology can lead to greater self-awareness and personal insight. Through learning sociology, we gain clearer knowledge about the conditions that shape our own lives, as well as how society and its social systems operate.
4. As this understanding grows, we become more capable of influencing the forces that shape our lives. For instance, we may respond more actively to government policies and decisions, and we can also put forward our own suggestions, alternatives, and initiatives to help guide social change.
5. relationships with others and with different social groups. Learning sociology helps us develop a more humane, people-focused outlook that places strong importance on human dignity.

(Sociology)

1. In general, studying sociology equips us with what sociologists describe as the sociological imagination. This concept refers to a special perspective for viewing the world through a sociological framework. It involves understanding our personal experiences by connecting them to what is happening in the wider social environment. Through this perspective, we are better able to recognize the social and non-biological influences that shape and affect our lives as individuals, as members of groups, and as part of communities. Sociological imagination encourages us to move beyond individual psychology and focus on the many social and cultural forces at work, including repeated patterns in people’s attitudes and behaviors, and how these patterns differ across societies, time periods, and social groups.
2. Studying sociology also helps us see how social forces shape our ambitions, viewpoints, actions, and even our personality. It increases our awareness of social problems and challenges. In addition, sociology encourages us to question and set aside personal biases, stereotypes, and ethnocentric ways of thinking. As a result, we become more thoughtful, open-minded, and respectful in our
3. Overall, sociology contributes to a deeper understanding of ourselves. The study of sociology can lead to greater self-awareness and personal insight. Through learning sociology, we gain clearer knowledge about the conditions that shape our own lives, as well as how society and its social systems operate.
4. As this understanding grows, we become more capable of influencing the forces that shape our lives. For instance, we may respond more actively to government policies and decisions, and we can also put forward our own suggestions, alternatives, and initiatives to help guide social change.
5. relationships with others and with different social groups. Learning sociology helps us develop a more humane, people-focused outlook that places strong importance on human dignity.

(Sociology)

1. In general, studying sociology equips us with what sociologists describe as the sociological imagination. This concept refers to a special perspective for viewing the world through a sociological framework. It involves understanding our personal experiences by connecting them to what is happening in the wider social environment. Through this perspective, we are better able to recognize the social and non-biological influences that shape and affect our lives as individuals, as members of groups, and as part of communities. Sociological imagination encourages us to move beyond individual psychology and focus on the many social and cultural forces at work, including repeated patterns in people’s attitudes and behaviors, and how these patterns differ across societies, time periods, and social groups.
2. Studying sociology also helps us see how social forces shape our ambitions, viewpoints, actions, and even our personality. It increases our awareness of social problems and challenges. In addition, sociology encourages us to question and set aside personal biases, stereotypes, and ethnocentric ways of thinking. As a result, we become more thoughtful, open-minded, and respectful in our
3. Overall, sociology contributes to a deeper understanding of ourselves. The study of sociology can lead to greater self-awareness and personal insight. Through learning sociology, we gain clearer knowledge about the conditions that shape our own lives, as well as how society and its social systems operate.
4. As this understanding grows, we become more capable of influencing the forces that shape our lives. For instance, we may respond more actively to government policies and decisions, and we can also put forward our own suggestions, alternatives, and initiatives to help guide social change.
5. relationships with others and with different social groups. Learning sociology helps us develop a more humane, people-focused outlook that places strong importance on human dignity.

(Biotechnology)

1. Over the last twenty years or so, biotechnology has grown rapidly. Firms in this area produce items such as vaccines, medicines, and specialized bacteria used in industry; some of which can help process waste or remove harmful chemicals after toxic accidents. Biotechnology is strongly connected to genetics and genetic engineering, two fields that have also progressed greatly in recent times.

2. Genetics focuses on genes and how traits are passed down, whereas genetic engineering involves altering genetic material to achieve particular outcomes. Starting in the 1950s, genetic scientists; including Rosalind Franklin, J.D. Waston, and F.H.C. Crick studied the chemical instructions found in every living organism. Their investigations confirmed how important DNA is within the chromosomes that control human inheritance. This work uncovered the spiral “double helix” structure of DNA, which passes inherited characteristics from parents to their children.

3. Continuing work in genetics has led to new kinds of medicines designed to combat human illnesses. Research has also developed new varieties of fruits and vegetables meant to resist disease or succeed in environments where they normally would not grow. Genetic cloning, meaning the creation of an exact copy of an organism from one of its cells, has many useful roles in animal breeding and in biological studies.

4. Biotechnology and genetic engineering have produced clear advantages, yet they have also sparked disagreement. Many people, for understandable reasons, feel that genetically modified foods are unnatural and may be harmful. In addition, the chance of cloning mammals that are genetically identical has raised concerns about how far science should go in making and reshaping life.

(Biotechnology)

1. Over the last twenty years or so, biotechnology has grown rapidly. Firms in this area produce items such as vaccines, medicines, and specialized bacteria used in industry; some of which can help process waste or remove harmful chemicals after toxic accidents. Biotechnology is strongly connected to genetics and genetic engineering, two fields that have also progressed greatly in recent times.

2. Genetics focuses on genes and how traits are passed down, whereas genetic engineering involves altering genetic material to achieve particular outcomes. Starting in the 1950s, genetic scientists; including Rosalind Franklin, J.D. Waston, and F.H.C. Crick studied the chemical instructions found in every living organism. Their investigations confirmed how important DNA is within the chromosomes that control human inheritance. This work uncovered the spiral “double helix” structure of DNA, which passes inherited characteristics from parents to their children.

3. Continuing work in genetics has led to new kinds of medicines designed to combat human illnesses. Research has also developed new varieties of fruits and vegetables meant to resist disease or succeed in environments where they normally would not grow. Genetic cloning, meaning the creation of an exact copy of an organism from one of its cells, has many useful roles in animal breeding and in biological studies.

4. Biotechnology and genetic engineering have produced clear advantages, yet they have also sparked disagreement. Many people, for understandable reasons, feel that genetically modified foods are unnatural and may be harmful. In addition, the chance of cloning mammals that are genetically identical has raised concerns about how far science should go in making and reshaping life.

Title: The History and Mechanism of Watches

1. A watch is a small device used to measure time that can be worn on the wrist or kept in a pocket. Its operation depends either on electrical power or on a tightly wound spring. Together with clocks, watches are among the most widely used instruments for telling time.

2. Watches appeared after the invention of clocks. The earliest form of a portable timekeeping device emerged during the Renaissance period. While clocks could function using a hanging weight and a simple escapement, this system was impractical for portable use. As a result, in the early sixteenth century, a coiled metal spring that released energy as it unwouna replaced the weight. By the 1580s, around the same era as Galileo’s work with pendulums, small numbers of the first commercial watches were manufactured in Nuremberg (Nunberg), Germany. These watches, known as Nuremberg eggs, could be carried easily but displayed only the hour because their escapement mechanisms were not precise enough to measure minutes.

3. In the 1660s, English scientist Robert Hooke, who had already contributed pendulum and escapement designs to clocks, adapted these ideas for watches. He connected a small balance mechanism to the mainspring. To regulate the movement of this balance unit, a balance spring, also called a hairspring, was introduced. This innovation became the foundation for all later mechanical watch designs.

4. A mechanical watch consists of six main components. These include the mainspring, which supplies energy; the gear train, which transfers that energy; the dial train, which moves the hands; the winding and setting system; the escapement and balance unit, which regulates energy release; and the plates or framework that hold and protect the entire mechanism.

5. During operation, the mainspring gradually unwinds and turns the barrel, sending power through the gear train to the escape, or great, wheel. This wheel rotates in a single direction until it is halted by a pallet arm belonging to the pallet and fork mechanism, similar in function to a clock’s detent. This pallet and fork assembly is connected to the balance wheel, which receives an impulse from the escape wheel each time it is released.

6. The escapement and balance mechanism are critical for maintaining accuracy because they regulate how energy leaves the mainspring and determine the timing of each release. The steady oscillation of the balance wheel is controlled by a hairspring, also known as an escapement spring. As the balance wheel moves in one direction, the hairspring tightens. When the escape wheel is stopped by a pallet arm, the hairspring loosens. The balance wheel is linked to the coiled mainspring, which winds as the balance wheel moves. Once the pallet and fork mechanism frees the escape wheel, the wheel advances by one tooth before being stopped again by the opposite pallet arm.

7. The balance wheel then swings back in the other direction, repeating the process. This continuous cycle produces the familiar ticking sound of a mechanical watch. The escape wheel is released and stopped every one-fifth of a second, causing the balance wheel to swing 300 times per minute, or 432,000 times per day. As in clocks, a system of gears carries this motion to the hour, minute, and second hands.

   7. Electric-powered watches operate using one of three drive systems:

   (1) the galvanometer drive, which uses a traditional balance-hairspring oscillator maintained by the magnetic interaction between a coil and a permanent magnet;

   (2) the induction drive, where an electromagnet pulls on a balance that contains soft magnetic material; or

   (3) the resonance drive, in which a small electrically powered tuning fork (approximately 1 inch [25 millimeters] long) generates the driving force.

   Both galvanometer and induction drive systems rely on a mechanical contact activated by the balance’s movement to deliver correctly timed electric pulses. Each swing of the balance advances a toothed wheel by one tooth, operating the time-indicating gear train.

Title: The History and Mechanism of Watches

1. A watch is a small device used to measure time that can be worn on the wrist or kept in a pocket. Its operation depends either on electrical power or on a tightly wound spring. Together with clocks, watches are among the most widely used instruments for telling time.

2. Watches appeared after the invention of clocks. The earliest form of a portable timekeeping device emerged during the Renaissance period. While clocks could function using a hanging weight and a simple escapement, this system was impractical for portable use. As a result, in the early sixteenth century, a coiled metal spring that released energy as it unwouna replaced the weight. By the 1580s, around the same era as Galileo’s work with pendulums, small numbers of the first commercial watches were manufactured in Nuremberg (Nunberg), Germany. These watches, known as Nuremberg eggs, could be carried easily but displayed only the hour because their escapement mechanisms were not precise enough to measure minutes.

3. In the 1660s, English scientist Robert Hooke, who had already contributed pendulum and escapement designs to clocks, adapted these ideas for watches. He connected a small balance mechanism to the mainspring. To regulate the movement of this balance unit, a balance spring, also called a hairspring, was introduced. This innovation became the foundation for all later mechanical watch designs.

4. A mechanical watch consists of six main components. These include the mainspring, which supplies energy; the gear train, which transfers that energy; the dial train, which moves the hands; the winding and setting system; the escapement and balance unit, which regulates energy release; and the plates or framework that hold and protect the entire mechanism.

5. During operation, the mainspring gradually unwinds and turns the barrel, sending power through the gear train to the escape, or great, wheel. This wheel rotates in a single direction until it is halted by a pallet arm belonging to the pallet and fork mechanism, similar in function to a clock’s detent. This pallet and fork assembly is connected to the balance wheel, which receives an impulse from the escape wheel each time it is released.

6. The escapement and balance mechanism are critical for maintaining accuracy because they regulate how energy leaves the mainspring and determine the timing of each release. The steady oscillation of the balance wheel is controlled by a hairspring, also known as an escapement spring. As the balance wheel moves in one direction, the hairspring tightens. When the escape wheel is stopped by a pallet arm, the hairspring loosens. The balance wheel is linked to the coiled mainspring, which winds as the balance wheel moves. Once the pallet and fork mechanism frees the escape wheel, the wheel advances by one tooth before being stopped again by the opposite pallet arm.

7. The balance wheel then swings back in the other direction, repeating the process. This continuous cycle produces the familiar ticking sound of a mechanical watch. The escape wheel is released and stopped every one-fifth of a second, causing the balance wheel to swing 300 times per minute, or 432,000 times per day. As in clocks, a system of gears carries this motion to the hour, minute, and second hands.

   7. Electric-powered watches operate using one of three drive systems:

   (1) the galvanometer drive, which uses a traditional balance-hairspring oscillator maintained by the magnetic interaction between a coil and a permanent magnet;

   (2) the induction drive, where an electromagnet pulls on a balance that contains soft magnetic material; or

   (3) the resonance drive, in which a small electrically powered tuning fork (approximately 1 inch [25 millimeters] long) generates the driving force.

   Both galvanometer and induction drive systems rely on a mechanical contact activated by the balance’s movement to deliver correctly timed electric pulses. Each swing of the balance advances a toothed wheel by one tooth, operating the time-indicating gear train.

Title: The History and Mechanism of Watches

1. A watch is a small device used to measure time that can be worn on the wrist or kept in a pocket. Its operation depends either on electrical power or on a tightly wound spring. Together with clocks, watches are among the most widely used instruments for telling time.

2. Watches appeared after the invention of clocks. The earliest form of a portable timekeeping device emerged during the Renaissance period. While clocks could function using a hanging weight and a simple escapement, this system was impractical for portable use. As a result, in the early sixteenth century, a coiled metal spring that released energy as it unwouna replaced the weight. By the 1580s, around the same era as Galileo’s work with pendulums, small numbers of the first commercial watches were manufactured in Nuremberg (Nunberg), Germany. These watches, known as Nuremberg eggs, could be carried easily but displayed only the hour because their escapement mechanisms were not precise enough to measure minutes.

3. In the 1660s, English scientist Robert Hooke, who had already contributed pendulum and escapement designs to clocks, adapted these ideas for watches. He connected a small balance mechanism to the mainspring. To regulate the movement of this balance unit, a balance spring, also called a hairspring, was introduced. This innovation became the foundation for all later mechanical watch designs.

4. A mechanical watch consists of six main components. These include the mainspring, which supplies energy; the gear train, which transfers that energy; the dial train, which moves the hands; the winding and setting system; the escapement and balance unit, which regulates energy release; and the plates or framework that hold and protect the entire mechanism.

5. During operation, the mainspring gradually unwinds and turns the barrel, sending power through the gear train to the escape, or great, wheel. This wheel rotates in a single direction until it is halted by a pallet arm belonging to the pallet and fork mechanism, similar in function to a clock’s detent. This pallet and fork assembly is connected to the balance wheel, which receives an impulse from the escape wheel each time it is released.

6. The escapement and balance mechanism are critical for maintaining accuracy because they regulate how energy leaves the mainspring and determine the timing of each release. The steady oscillation of the balance wheel is controlled by a hairspring, also known as an escapement spring. As the balance wheel moves in one direction, the hairspring tightens. When the escape wheel is stopped by a pallet arm, the hairspring loosens. The balance wheel is linked to the coiled mainspring, which winds as the balance wheel moves. Once the pallet and fork mechanism frees the escape wheel, the wheel advances by one tooth before being stopped again by the opposite pallet arm.

7. The balance wheel then swings back in the other direction, repeating the process. This continuous cycle produces the familiar ticking sound of a mechanical watch. The escape wheel is released and stopped every one-fifth of a second, causing the balance wheel to swing 300 times per minute, or 432,000 times per day. As in clocks, a system of gears carries this motion to the hour, minute, and second hands.

   7. Electric-powered watches operate using one of three drive systems:

   (1) the galvanometer drive, which uses a traditional balance-hairspring oscillator maintained by the magnetic interaction between a coil and a permanent magnet;

   (2) the induction drive, where an electromagnet pulls on a balance that contains soft magnetic material; or

   (3) the resonance drive, in which a small electrically powered tuning fork (approximately 1 inch [25 millimeters] long) generates the driving force.

   Both galvanometer and induction drive systems rely on a mechanical contact activated by the balance’s movement to deliver correctly timed electric pulses. Each swing of the balance advances a toothed wheel by one tooth, operating the time-indicating gear train.

Sleeping loss

1. One of the most noticeable results of reduced sleep; well known to exhausted college student, is persistent drowsiness and, at times, a general feeling of discomfort. In modern life, people experience disrupted sleep patterns more than ever before, leaving them without a refreshed sense of well-being. Adolescents usually require between eight and nine hours of sleep, yet they now get almost two hours less each night compared to teenagers from eighty years ago. To compensate, many students try to catch up on rest by napping during homeroom.

2. Other consequences of insufficient sleep are less obvious. Among these is a weakening of the body’s immune defenses. Studies on rats show that lack of sleep allows harmful organisms; normally controlled by the immune system, to increase. Similar effects appear in humans, as sleep deprivation reduces immune cells responsible for fighting viral infections. When illness does occur, additional sleep that strengthens immunity often follows.

3. Further effects of sleep loss include lower levels of creativity and focus, mild hand shaking, irritability, slower reactions, and occasional false perceptions during repetitive activities. These problems can be extremely dangerous in certain situations, particularly driving or flying. In Australia, about 30 percent of highway fatalities happen when drivers fall asleep on long, uneventful roads. Historical disasters such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the Union Carbide tragedy in Bhopal, India, and the Chernobyl nuclear accident also took place after midnight, a time when workers are most likely to be extremely tired. In fact, reports suggest that the Exxon Valdez captain was asleep and failed to respond to clear warnings to steer the ship back into its shipping lanes.

4. However, during brief tasks that involve strong motivation, the effects of sleep deprivation may be minimal. When seventeen-year-old Randy Gardner entered the Guinness Book of World Records by remaining awake for eleven consecutive days, he suffered hallucinations along with difficulties in speech and movement. Even so, on the final night without sleep, Gardner was still able to defeat researcher Dement one hundred times in a pinball game.

Sleeping loss

1. One of the most noticeable results of reduced sleep; well known to exhausted college student, is persistent drowsiness and, at times, a general feeling of discomfort. In modern life, people experience disrupted sleep patterns more than ever before, leaving them without a refreshed sense of well-being. Adolescents usually require between eight and nine hours of sleep, yet they now get almost two hours less each night compared to teenagers from eighty years ago. To compensate, many students try to catch up on rest by napping during homeroom.

2. Other consequences of insufficient sleep are less obvious. Among these is a weakening of the body’s immune defenses. Studies on rats show that lack of sleep allows harmful organisms; normally controlled by the immune system, to increase. Similar effects appear in humans, as sleep deprivation reduces immune cells responsible for fighting viral infections. When illness does occur, additional sleep that strengthens immunity often follows.

3. Further effects of sleep loss include lower levels of creativity and focus, mild hand shaking, irritability, slower reactions, and occasional false perceptions during repetitive activities. These problems can be extremely dangerous in certain situations, particularly driving or flying. In Australia, about 30 percent of highway fatalities happen when drivers fall asleep on long, uneventful roads. Historical disasters such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the Union Carbide tragedy in Bhopal, India, and the Chernobyl nuclear accident also took place after midnight, a time when workers are most likely to be extremely tired. In fact, reports suggest that the Exxon Valdez captain was asleep and failed to respond to clear warnings to steer the ship back into its shipping lanes.

4. However, during brief tasks that involve strong motivation, the effects of sleep deprivation may be minimal. When seventeen-year-old Randy Gardner entered the Guinness Book of World Records by remaining awake for eleven consecutive days, he suffered hallucinations along with difficulties in speech and movement. Even so, on the final night without sleep, Gardner was still able to defeat researcher Dement one hundred times in a pinball game.

Sleeping loss

1. One of the most noticeable results of reduced sleep; well known to exhausted college student, is persistent drowsiness and, at times, a general feeling of discomfort. In modern life, people experience disrupted sleep patterns more than ever before, leaving them without a refreshed sense of well-being. Adolescents usually require between eight and nine hours of sleep, yet they now get almost two hours less each night compared to teenagers from eighty years ago. To compensate, many students try to catch up on rest by napping during homeroom.

2. Other consequences of insufficient sleep are less obvious. Among these is a weakening of the body’s immune defenses. Studies on rats show that lack of sleep allows harmful organisms; normally controlled by the immune system, to increase. Similar effects appear in humans, as sleep deprivation reduces immune cells responsible for fighting viral infections. When illness does occur, additional sleep that strengthens immunity often follows.

3. Further effects of sleep loss include lower levels of creativity and focus, mild hand shaking, irritability, slower reactions, and occasional false perceptions during repetitive activities. These problems can be extremely dangerous in certain situations, particularly driving or flying. In Australia, about 30 percent of highway fatalities happen when drivers fall asleep on long, uneventful roads. Historical disasters such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the Union Carbide tragedy in Bhopal, India, and the Chernobyl nuclear accident also took place after midnight, a time when workers are most likely to be extremely tired. In fact, reports suggest that the Exxon Valdez captain was asleep and failed to respond to clear warnings to steer the ship back into its shipping lanes.

4. However, during brief tasks that involve strong motivation, the effects of sleep deprivation may be minimal. When seventeen-year-old Randy Gardner entered the Guinness Book of World Records by remaining awake for eleven consecutive days, he suffered hallucinations along with difficulties in speech and movement. Even so, on the final night without sleep, Gardner was still able to defeat researcher Dement one hundred times in a pinball game.

Sleeping loss

1. One of the most noticeable results of reduced sleep; well known to exhausted college student, is persistent drowsiness and, at times, a general feeling of discomfort. In modern life, people experience disrupted sleep patterns more than ever before, leaving them without a refreshed sense of well-being. Adolescents usually require between eight and nine hours of sleep, yet they now get almost two hours less each night compared to teenagers from eighty years ago. To compensate, many students try to catch up on rest by napping during homeroom.

2. Other consequences of insufficient sleep are less obvious. Among these is a weakening of the body’s immune defenses. Studies on rats show that lack of sleep allows harmful organisms; normally controlled by the immune system, to increase. Similar effects appear in humans, as sleep deprivation reduces immune cells responsible for fighting viral infections. When illness does occur, additional sleep that strengthens immunity often follows.

3. Further effects of sleep loss include lower levels of creativity and focus, mild hand shaking, irritability, slower reactions, and occasional false perceptions during repetitive activities. These problems can be extremely dangerous in certain situations, particularly driving or flying. In Australia, about 30 percent of highway fatalities happen when drivers fall asleep on long, uneventful roads. Historical disasters such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the Union Carbide tragedy in Bhopal, India, and the Chernobyl nuclear accident also took place after midnight, a time when workers are most likely to be extremely tired. In fact, reports suggest that the Exxon Valdez captain was asleep and failed to respond to clear warnings to steer the ship back into its shipping lanes.

4. However, during brief tasks that involve strong motivation, the effects of sleep deprivation may be minimal. When seventeen-year-old Randy Gardner entered the Guinness Book of World Records by remaining awake for eleven consecutive days, he suffered hallucinations along with difficulties in speech and movement. Even so, on the final night without sleep, Gardner was still able to defeat researcher Dement one hundred times in a pinball game.

Book Review

1. In Shackles from the Deep, journalist and scuba diver Michael Cottman examines the history of the slave trade by tracing the story of a single vessel, the Henrietta Marie. By combining the narrative of this one slave ship with his personal exploration, Cottman makes the subject of slavery more personal and relatable for younger readers. Rather than presenting slavery as a distant topic, he shifts teaching away from passive learning and toward an engaging process based on inquiry and exploration.

2. Cottman’s investigation began with his own curiosity about the Henrietta Marie, a British slave ship that went down in the Florida Straits in 1700. Like many ships of its time, it was part of the “Triangle Trade,” carrying enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas, exporting raw goods such as sugar and tobacco from the Americas to Great Britain, and then delivering manufactured products to British settlements in Africa. After completing a voyage to Jamaica to unload enslaved people, the ship encountered a hurricane while sailing back to London. The crew died in the disaster, and although no slaves were aboard at the time, the iron shackles and chains used to restrain them were lost beneath the sea.

3. The shackles were located by marine archaeologists in 1972, followed by the discovery of the ship’s bell in 1983. While studying historical documents related to the Henrietta Marie, Cottman became deeply affected by learning that Africans were described as “cargo” or “beasts” instead of human beings. He openly acknowledges the emotional toll of this research but explains that his determination came from a desire to better understand the history of his ancestors. Through sharing this emotional journey, Cottman aims to encourage young readers to find something meaningful that inspires passion and commitment.

4. Cottman also explains that reconstructing the story of the Henrietta Marie helped him seek a sense of closure. He wanted to understand what drove ordinary individuals to take part in the slave trade. His research uncovered the identity of the British ironmonger who made the shackles found at the wreck site: Anthony Tournay. By examining people like Tournay, Cottman shows that the slave trade involved everyday men and women; people who could show kindness in other contexts, who were participating in what he describes as “the international business of slavery.”

اتفضلي النص مكتوب:

Image 1:

Book Review

1. In Shackles from the Deep, journalist and scuba diver Michael Cottman examines the history of the slave trade by tracing the story of a single vessel, the Henrietta Marie. By combining the narrative of this one slave ship with his personal exploration, Cottman makes the subject of slavery more personal and relatable for younger readers. Rather than presenting slavery as a distant topic, he shifts teaching away from passive learning and toward an engaging process based on inquiry and exploration.

2. Cottman’s investigation began with his own curiosity about the Henrietta Marie, a British slave ship that went down in the Florida Straits in 1700. Like many ships of its time, it was part of the “Triangle Trade,” carrying enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas, exporting raw goods such as sugar and tobacco from the Americas to Great Britain, and then delivering manufactured products to British settlements in Africa. After completing a voyage to Jamaica to unload enslaved people, the ship encountered a hurricane while sailing back to London. The crew died in the disaster, and although no slaves were aboard at the time, the iron shackles and chains used to restrain them were lost beneath the sea.

Image 2:

3. The shackles were located by marine archaeologists in 1972, followed by the discovery of the ship’s bell in 1983. While studying historical documents related to the Henrietta Marie, Cottman became deeply affected by learning that Africans were described as “cargo” or “beasts” instead of human beings. He openly acknowledges the emotional toll of this research but explains that his determination came from a desire to better understand the history of his ancestors. Through sharing this emotional journey, Cottman aims to encourage young readers to find something meaningful that inspires passion and commitment.

4. Cottman also explains that reconstructing the story of the Henrietta Marie helped him seek a sense of closure. He wanted to understand what drove ordinary individuals to take part in the slave trade. His research uncovered the identity of the British ironmonger who made the shackles found at the wreck site: Anthony Tournay. By examining people like Tournay, Cottman shows that the slave trade involved everyday men and women; people who could show kindness in other contexts, who were participating in what he describes as “the international business of slavery.”

5. The excavation of the Henrietta Marie resulted in the recovery of more than 22,000 artifacts. According to Cottman, the ship is “believed to be the world’s largest source of tangible objects representing the early years of the African slave trade.” Among the items retrieved were glass beads, which were used “to barter for African people who would be traded into slavery,” as well as a heavily encrusted cooking cauldron.

6. Both the excavation of the shipwreck and the placement of an underwater memorial plaque were completed through a joint effort between the National Association of Black Scuba Divers and the largely white Maritime Heritage Society. Cottman identifies this successful collaboration as the most important lesson presented in Shackles from the Deep.

7. Cottman hopes readers leave the book with an understanding of “the power of different ethnic or racial groups to work together for a common purpose.” Although the shared goal in this case was uncovering a shipwreck, he reminds readers that there are “many other purposes to come together on.” He stresses that such cooperation requires people to engage with others who are different from themselves, which he sees as especially vital in an increasingly multicultural society.

Book Review

1. In Shackles from the Deep, journalist and scuba diver Michael Cottman examines the history of the slave trade by tracing the story of a single vessel, the Henrietta Marie. By combining the narrative of this one slave ship with his personal exploration, Cottman makes the subject of slavery more personal and relatable for younger readers. Rather than presenting slavery as a distant topic, he shifts teaching away from passive learning and toward an engaging process based on inquiry and exploration.

2. Cottman’s investigation began with his own curiosity about the Henrietta Marie, a British slave ship that went down in the Florida Straits in 1700. Like many ships of its time, it was part of the “Triangle Trade,” carrying enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas, exporting raw goods such as sugar and tobacco from the Americas to Great Britain, and then delivering manufactured products to British settlements in Africa. After completing a voyage to Jamaica to unload enslaved people, the ship encountered a hurricane while sailing back to London. The crew died in the disaster, and although no slaves were aboard at the time, the iron shackles and chains used to restrain them were lost beneath the sea.

3. The shackles were located by marine archaeologists in 1972, followed by the discovery of the ship’s bell in 1983. While studying historical documents related to the Henrietta Marie, Cottman became deeply affected by learning that Africans were described as “cargo” or “beasts” instead of human beings. He openly acknowledges the emotional toll of this research but explains that his determination came from a desire to better understand the history of his ancestors. Through sharing this emotional journey, Cottman aims to encourage young readers to find something meaningful that inspires passion and commitment.

4. Cottman also explains that reconstructing the story of the Henrietta Marie helped him seek a sense of closure. He wanted to understand what drove ordinary individuals to take part in the slave trade. His research uncovered the identity of the British ironmonger who made the shackles found at the wreck site: Anthony Tournay. By examining people like Tournay, Cottman shows that the slave trade involved everyday men and women; people who could show kindness in other contexts, who were participating in what he describes as “the international business of slavery.”

اتفضلي النص مكتوب:

Image 1:

Book Review

1. In Shackles from the Deep, journalist and scuba diver Michael Cottman examines the history of the slave trade by tracing the story of a single vessel, the Henrietta Marie. By combining the narrative of this one slave ship with his personal exploration, Cottman makes the subject of slavery more personal and relatable for younger readers. Rather than presenting slavery as a distant topic, he shifts teaching away from passive learning and toward an engaging process based on inquiry and exploration.

2. Cottman’s investigation began with his own curiosity about the Henrietta Marie, a British slave ship that went down in the Florida Straits in 1700. Like many ships of its time, it was part of the “Triangle Trade,” carrying enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas, exporting raw goods such as sugar and tobacco from the Americas to Great Britain, and then delivering manufactured products to British settlements in Africa. After completing a voyage to Jamaica to unload enslaved people, the ship encountered a hurricane while sailing back to London. The crew died in the disaster, and although no slaves were aboard at the time, the iron shackles and chains used to restrain them were lost beneath the sea.

Image 2:

5. The shackles were located by marine archaeologists in 1972, followed by the discovery of the ship’s bell in 1983. While studying historical documents related to the Henrietta Marie, Cottman became deeply affected by learning that Africans were described as “cargo” or “beasts” instead of human beings. He openly acknowledges the emotional toll of this research but explains that his determination came from a desire to better understand the history of his ancestors. Through sharing this emotional journey, Cottman aims to encourage young readers to find something meaningful that inspires passion and commitment.

6. Cottman also explains that reconstructing the story of the Henrietta Marie helped him seek a sense of closure. He wanted to understand what drove ordinary individuals to take part in the slave trade. His research uncovered the identity of the British ironmonger who made the shackles found at the wreck site: Anthony Tournay. By examining people like Tournay, Cottman shows that the slave trade involved everyday men and women; people who could show kindness in other contexts, who were participating in what he describes as “the international business of slavery.”

7. The excavation of the Henrietta Marie resulted in the recovery of more than 22,000 artifacts. According to Cottman, the ship is “believed to be the world’s largest source of tangible objects representing the early years of the African slave trade.” Among the items retrieved were glass beads, which were used “to barter for African people who would be traded into slavery,” as well as a heavily encrusted cooking cauldron.

8. Both the excavation of the shipwreck and the placement of an underwater memorial plaque were completed through a joint effort between the National Association of Black Scuba Divers and the largely white Maritime Heritage Society. Cottman identifies this successful collaboration as the most important lesson presented in Shackles from the Deep.

9. Cottman hopes readers leave the book with an understanding of “the power of different ethnic or racial groups to work together for a common purpose.” Although the shared goal in this case was uncovering a shipwreck, he reminds readers that there are “many other purposes to come together on.” He stresses that such cooperation requires people to engage with others who are different from themselves, which he sees as especially vital in an increasingly multicultural society.

Book Review

1. In Shackles from the Deep, journalist and scuba diver Michael Cottman examines the history of the slave trade by tracing the story of a single vessel, the Henrietta Marie. By combining the narrative of this one slave ship with his personal exploration, Cottman makes the subject of slavery more personal and relatable for younger readers. Rather than presenting slavery as a distant topic, he shifts teaching away from passive learning and toward an engaging process based on inquiry and exploration.

2. Cottman’s investigation began with his own curiosity about the Henrietta Marie, a British slave ship that went down in the Florida Straits in 1700. Like many ships of its time, it was part of the “Triangle Trade,” carrying enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas, exporting raw goods such as sugar and tobacco from the Americas to Great Britain, and then delivering manufactured products to British settlements in Africa. After completing a voyage to Jamaica to unload enslaved people, the ship encountered a hurricane while sailing back to London. The crew died in the disaster, and although no slaves were aboard at the time, the iron shackles and chains used to restrain them were lost beneath the sea.

3. The shackles were located by marine archaeologists in 1972, followed by the discovery of the ship’s bell in 1983. While studying historical documents related to the Henrietta Marie, Cottman became deeply affected by learning that Africans were described as “cargo” or “beasts” instead of human beings. He openly acknowledges the emotional toll of this research but explains that his determination came from a desire to better understand the history of his ancestors. Through sharing this emotional journey, Cottman aims to encourage young readers to find something meaningful that inspires passion and commitment.

4. Cottman also explains that reconstructing the story of the Henrietta Marie helped him seek a sense of closure. He wanted to understand what drove ordinary individuals to take part in the slave trade. His research uncovered the identity of the British ironmonger who made the shackles found at the wreck site: Anthony Tournay. By examining people like Tournay, Cottman shows that the slave trade involved everyday men and women; people who could show kindness in other contexts, who were participating in what he describes as “the international business of slavery.”

اتفضلي النص مكتوب:

Image 1:

Book Review

1. In Shackles from the Deep, journalist and scuba diver Michael Cottman examines the history of the slave trade by tracing the story of a single vessel, the Henrietta Marie. By combining the narrative of this one slave ship with his personal exploration, Cottman makes the subject of slavery more personal and relatable for younger readers. Rather than presenting slavery as a distant topic, he shifts teaching away from passive learning and toward an engaging process based on inquiry and exploration.

2. Cottman’s investigation began with his own curiosity about the Henrietta Marie, a British slave ship that went down in the Florida Straits in 1700. Like many ships of its time, it was part of the “Triangle Trade,” carrying enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas, exporting raw goods such as sugar and tobacco from the Americas to Great Britain, and then delivering manufactured products to British settlements in Africa. After completing a voyage to Jamaica to unload enslaved people, the ship encountered a hurricane while sailing back to London. The crew died in the disaster, and although no slaves were aboard at the time, the iron shackles and chains used to restrain them were lost beneath the sea.

Image 2:

5. The shackles were located by marine archaeologists in 1972, followed by the discovery of the ship’s bell in 1983. While studying historical documents related to the Henrietta Marie, Cottman became deeply affected by learning that Africans were described as “cargo” or “beasts” instead of human beings. He openly acknowledges the emotional toll of this research but explains that his determination came from a desire to better understand the history of his ancestors. Through sharing this emotional journey, Cottman aims to encourage young readers to find something meaningful that inspires passion and commitment.

6. Cottman also explains that reconstructing the story of the Henrietta Marie helped him seek a sense of closure. He wanted to understand what drove ordinary individuals to take part in the slave trade. His research uncovered the identity of the British ironmonger who made the shackles found at the wreck site: Anthony Tournay. By examining people like Tournay, Cottman shows that the slave trade involved everyday men and women; people who could show kindness in other contexts, who were participating in what he describes as “the international business of slavery.”

7. The excavation of the Henrietta Marie resulted in the recovery of more than 22,000 artifacts. According to Cottman, the ship is “believed to be the world’s largest source of tangible objects representing the early years of the African slave trade.” Among the items retrieved were glass beads, which were used “to barter for African people who would be traded into slavery,” as well as a heavily encrusted cooking cauldron.

8. Both the excavation of the shipwreck and the placement of an underwater memorial plaque were completed through a joint effort between the National Association of Black Scuba Divers and the largely white Maritime Heritage Society. Cottman identifies this successful collaboration as the most important lesson presented in Shackles from the Deep.

9. Cottman hopes readers leave the book with an understanding of “the power of different ethnic or racial groups to work together for a common purpose.” Although the shared goal in this case was uncovering a shipwreck, he reminds readers that there are “many other purposes to come together on.” He stresses that such cooperation requires people to engage with others who are different from themselves, which he sees as especially vital in an increasingly multicultural society.

Computers
Passage A: What is a computer?
1. Every computer system, regardless of its size or capacity,
is made up of four main components, each responsible for
a specific function. Input refers to the ways instructions and
data are entered into the computer. Processing is carried
out by the central processing unit (CPU), which follows
instructions to handle data. This includes calculations,
comparisons, and moving data. During this stage, the main
memory temporarily holds data and programs currently
being used and plays a role in running software. Storage
involves saving data for later use on what is known as a
backing store. Output consists of the methods used to
deliver processed information from the computer.
2.A computer system is made up of a collection of devices
that can perform the four functions described above. All of
this physical equipment is known as hardware. Any devices
connected to the computer but not part of the main unit are
called peripherals, or external devices. Computers operate
by following instructions, which together form a program
written in a computer language. These programs direct the
computer by telling the control unit how to operate. The
term software refers to all programs and data used within a
computer system. An interface is the combination of
hardware and associated software that allows processors
and peripheral devices to work together despite differences
in speed and coding systems.
Passage B: CPU and Memory
3.The efficiency of a CPU depends on factors such as the
number of cores it has, its clock speed, and the memory
available. Memory can be classified into volatile and nonvolatile
types. Since computers process data, the physical
components that make this possible are known as
hardware. For a computer to operate, it needs input
devices, processing components, and output devices. The
essential elements that define a computer system are the
CPU and memory, as the computer cannot operate without
them.
4.The CPU and memory operate together to allow programs
to run correctly. The CPU runs programs by following the
fetch–decode–execute cycle. While a program is running,
memory holds both the instructions and the data being
used. Memory exists in several forms, such as registers,
cache, RAM, and virtual memory. Storage devices keep
programs and files for long-term use, even when they are
not actively running. Hardware like hard drives, USB flash
drives, and SD cards are used to store files such as
images, audio, and software applications over long periods.
Many computers contain both a CPU and a separate
graphics processing unit (GPU) to handle visual output.
The GPU can be.

Computers

Passage A: What is a computer?

1. Every computer system, regardless of its size or capacity,

is made up of four main components, each responsible for

a specific function. Input refers to the ways instructions and

data are entered into the computer. Processing is carried

out by the central processing unit (CPU), which follows

instructions to handle data. This includes calculations,

comparisons, and moving data. During this stage, the main

memory temporarily holds data and programs currently

being used and plays a role in running software. Storage

involves saving data for later use on what is known as a

backing store. Output consists of the methods used to

deliver processed information from the computer.

2.A computer system is made up of a collection of devices

that can perform the four functions described above. All of

this physical equipment is known as hardware. Any devices

connected to the computer but not part of the main unit are

called peripherals, or external devices. Computers operate

by following instructions, which together form a program

written in a computer language. These programs direct the

computer by telling the control unit how to operate. The

term software refers to all programs and data used within a

computer system. An interface is the combination of

hardware and associated software that allows processors

and peripheral devices to work together despite differences

in speed and coding systems.

Passage B: CPU and Memory

3.The efficiency of a CPU depends on factors such as the

number of cores it has, its clock speed, and the memory

available. Memory can be classified into volatile and nonvolatile

types. Since computers process data, the physical

components that make this possible are known as

hardware. For a computer to operate, it needs input

devices, processing components, and output devices. The

essential elements that define a computer system are the

CPU and memory, as the computer cannot operate without

them.

4.The CPU and memory operate together to allow programs

to run correctly. The CPU runs programs by following the

fetch–decode–execute cycle. While a program is running,

memory holds both the instructions and the data being

used. Memory exists in several forms, such as registers,

cache, RAM, and virtual memory. Storage devices keep

programs and files for long-term use, even when they are

not actively running. Hardware like hard drives, USB flash

drives, and SD cards are used to store files such as

images, audio, and software applications over long periods.

Many computers contain both a CPU and a separate

graphics processing unit (GPU) to handle visual output.

The GPU can be.

Computers

Passage A: What is a computer?

1. Every computer system, regardless of its size or capacity,

is made up of four main components, each responsible for

a specific function. Input refers to the ways instructions and

data are entered into the computer. Processing is carried

out by the central processing unit (CPU), which follows

instructions to handle data. This includes calculations,

comparisons, and moving data. During this stage, the main

memory temporarily holds data and programs currently

being used and plays a role in running software. Storage

involves saving data for later use on what is known as a

backing store. Output consists of the methods used to

deliver processed information from the computer.

2.A computer system is made up of a collection of devices

that can perform the four functions described above. All of

this physical equipment is known as hardware. Any devices

connected to the computer but not part of the main unit are

called peripherals, or external devices. Computers operate

by following instructions, which together form a program

written in a computer language. These programs direct the

computer by telling the control unit how to operate. The

term software refers to all programs and data used within a

computer system. An interface is the combination of

hardware and associated software that allows processors

and peripheral devices to work together despite differences

in speed and coding systems.

Passage B: CPU and Memory

3.The efficiency of a CPU depends on factors such as the

number of cores it has, its clock speed, and the memory

available. Memory can be classified into volatile and nonvolatile

types. Since computers process data, the physical

components that make this possible are known as

hardware. For a computer to operate, it needs input

devices, processing components, and output devices. The

essential elements that define a computer system are the

CPU and memory, as the computer cannot operate without

them.

4.The CPU and memory operate together to allow programs

to run correctly. The CPU runs programs by following the

fetch–decode–execute cycle. While a program is running,

memory holds both the instructions and the data being

used. Memory exists in several forms, such as registers,

cache, RAM, and virtual memory. Storage devices keep

programs and files for long-term use, even when they are

not actively running. Hardware like hard drives, USB flash

drives, and SD cards are used to store files such as

images, audio, and software applications over long periods.

Many computers contain both a CPU and a separate

graphics processing unit (GPU) to handle visual output.

The GPU can be.

Computers

Passage A: What is a computer?

1. Every computer system, regardless of its size or capacity,

is made up of four main components, each responsible for

a specific function. Input refers to the ways instructions and

data are entered into the computer. Processing is carried

out by the central processing unit (CPU), which follows

instructions to handle data. This includes calculations,

comparisons, and moving data. During this stage, the main

memory temporarily holds data and programs currently

being used and plays a role in running software. Storage

involves saving data for later use on what is known as a

backing store. Output consists of the methods used to

deliver processed information from the computer.

2.A computer system is made up of a collection of devices

that can perform the four functions described above. All of

this physical equipment is known as hardware. Any devices

connected to the computer but not part of the main unit are

called peripherals, or external devices. Computers operate

by following instructions, which together form a program

written in a computer language. These programs direct the

computer by telling the control unit how to operate. The

term software refers to all programs and data used within a

computer system. An interface is the combination of

hardware and associated software that allows processors

and peripheral devices to work together despite differences

in speed and coding systems.

Passage B: CPU and Memory

3.The efficiency of a CPU depends on factors such as the

number of cores it has, its clock speed, and the memory

available. Memory can be classified into volatile and nonvolatile

types. Since computers process data, the physical

components that make this possible are known as

hardware. For a computer to operate, it needs input

devices, processing components, and output devices. The

essential elements that define a computer system are the

CPU and memory, as the computer cannot operate without

them.

4.The CPU and memory operate together to allow programs

to run correctly. The CPU runs programs by following the

fetch–decode–execute cycle. While a program is running,

memory holds both the instructions and the data being

used. Memory exists in several forms, such as registers,

cache, RAM, and virtual memory. Storage devices keep

programs and files for long-term use, even when they are

not actively running. Hardware like hard drives, USB flash

drives, and SD cards are used to store files such as

images, audio, and software applications over long periods.

Many computers contain both a CPU and a separate

graphics processing unit (GPU) to handle visual output.

The GPU can be.

Cultural Differences in Social Norms and Happiness
1.Cultures vary in the kinds of rules and expectations they
consider important, and these norms shape how members
of a society behave. Social psychologists point out a basic
contrast between Western cultures and East Asian cultures
when it comes to social norms. In Western societies, norms
tend to emphasize individualism, independence, and
building a positive self-image. Western children are often
encouraged to see themselves as unique and outstanding.
They take pleasure in receiving rewards such as gold stars
for their work or earning the highest marks in class.
Similarly, adults in Western cultures usually focus on
advancing their own individual success, often by measuring
their success against that of others.
2. In contrast, East Asian cultural norms place greater
importance on concern for others. These norms suggest
that individuals are closely linked to the people around
them and therefore value interdependence, also known as
collectivism. Children in East Asian societies are taught to
prioritize maintaining balanced and harmonious
relationships, and the dominant expectations stress unity,
social connection, and a strong sense of duty toward family
members. Illustrating these differences, research by
Shinobu Kitayama and his colleagues showed that East
Asians tend to feel happy mainly through their relationships
with others, while Westerners are more likely to feel
happiness through their own personal accomplishments.
3. Understanding cultures and their differences is essential,
partly because people from diverse cultural backgrounds
are interacting more frequently due to increased travel,
immigration, and the growth of the internet and modern
communication tools. For example, the United States is
home to a wide range of ethnic communities, and the
percentage of residents belonging to minority groups
continues to rise each year. Recognizing cultural
differences and reflecting on how they shape our
interactions with others is a key element of developing a
basic understanding of social psychology.

Cultural Differences in Social Norms and Happiness
1.Cultures vary in the kinds of rules and expectations they
consider important, and these norms shape how members
of a society behave. Social psychologists point out a basic
contrast between Western cultures and East Asian cultures
when it comes to social norms. In Western societies, norms
tend to emphasize individualism, independence, and
building a positive self-image. Western children are often
encouraged to see themselves as unique and outstanding.
They take pleasure in receiving rewards such as gold stars
for their work or earning the highest marks in class.
Similarly, adults in Western cultures usually focus on
advancing their own individual success, often by measuring
their success against that of others.
2. In contrast, East Asian cultural norms place greater
importance on concern for others. These norms suggest
that individuals are closely linked to the people around
them and therefore value interdependence, also known as
collectivism. Children in East Asian societies are taught to
prioritize maintaining balanced and harmonious
relationships, and the dominant expectations stress unity,
social connection, and a strong sense of duty toward family
members. Illustrating these differences, research by
Shinobu Kitayama and his colleagues showed that East
Asians tend to feel happy mainly through their relationships
with others, while Westerners are more likely to feel
happiness through their own personal accomplishments.
3. Understanding cultures and their differences is essential,
partly because people from diverse cultural backgrounds
are interacting more frequently due to increased travel,
immigration, and the growth of the internet and modern
communication tools. For example, the United States is
home to a wide range of ethnic communities, and the
percentage of residents belonging to minority groups
continues to rise each year. Recognizing cultural
differences and reflecting on how they shape our
interactions with others is a key element of developing a
basic understanding of social psychology.

Cultural Differences in Social Norms and Happiness
1.Cultures vary in the kinds of rules and expectations they
consider important, and these norms shape how members
of a society behave. Social psychologists point out a basic
contrast between Western cultures and East Asian cultures
when it comes to social norms. In Western societies, norms
tend to emphasize individualism, independence, and
building a positive self-image. Western children are often
encouraged to see themselves as unique and outstanding.
They take pleasure in receiving rewards such as gold stars
for their work or earning the highest marks in class.
Similarly, adults in Western cultures usually focus on
advancing their own individual success, often by measuring
their success against that of others.
2. In contrast, East Asian cultural norms place greater
importance on concern for others. These norms suggest
that individuals are closely linked to the people around
them and therefore value interdependence, also known as
collectivism. Children in East Asian societies are taught to
prioritize maintaining balanced and harmonious
relationships, and the dominant expectations stress unity,
social connection, and a strong sense of duty toward family
members. Illustrating these differences, research by
Shinobu Kitayama and his colleagues showed that East
Asians tend to feel happy mainly through their relationships
with others, while Westerners are more likely to feel
happiness through their own personal accomplishments.
3. Understanding cultures and their differences is essential,
partly because people from diverse cultural backgrounds
are interacting more frequently due to increased travel,
immigration, and the growth of the internet and modern
communication tools. For example, the United States is
home to a wide range of ethnic communities, and the
percentage of residents belonging to minority groups
continues to rise each year. Recognizing cultural
differences and reflecting on how they shape our
interactions with others is a key element of developing a
basic understanding of social psychology.

Cultural Differences in Social Norms and Happiness
1.Cultures vary in the kinds of rules and expectations they
consider important, and these norms shape how members
of a society behave. Social psychologists point out a basic
contrast between Western cultures and East Asian cultures
when it comes to social norms. In Western societies, norms
tend to emphasize individualism, independence, and
building a positive self-image. Western children are often
encouraged to see themselves as unique and outstanding.
They take pleasure in receiving rewards such as gold stars
for their work or earning the highest marks in class.
Similarly, adults in Western cultures usually focus on
advancing their own individual success, often by measuring
their success against that of others.
2. In contrast, East Asian cultural norms place greater
importance on concern for others. These norms suggest
that individuals are closely linked to the people around
them and therefore value interdependence, also known as
collectivism. Children in East Asian societies are taught to
prioritize maintaining balanced and harmonious
relationships, and the dominant expectations stress unity,
social connection, and a strong sense of duty toward family
members. Illustrating these differences, research by
Shinobu Kitayama and his colleagues showed that East
Asians tend to feel happy mainly through their relationships
with others, while Westerners are more likely to feel
happiness through their own personal accomplishments.
3. Understanding cultures and their differences is essential,
partly because people from diverse cultural backgrounds
are interacting more frequently due to increased travel,
immigration, and the growth of the internet and modern
communication tools. For example, the United States is
home to a wide range of ethnic communities, and the
percentage of residents belonging to minority groups
continues to rise each year. Recognizing cultural
differences and reflecting on how they shape our
interactions with others is a key element of developing a
basic understanding of social psychology.

Cultural Differences in Social Norms and Happiness
1.Cultures vary in the kinds of rules and expectations they
consider important, and these norms shape how members
of a society behave. Social psychologists point out a basic
contrast between Western cultures and East Asian cultures
when it comes to social norms. In Western societies, norms
tend to emphasize individualism, independence, and
building a positive self-image. Western children are often
encouraged to see themselves as unique and outstanding.
They take pleasure in receiving rewards such as gold stars
for their work or earning the highest marks in class.
Similarly, adults in Western cultures usually focus on
advancing their own individual success, often by measuring
their success against that of others.
2. In contrast, East Asian cultural norms place greater
importance on concern for others. These norms suggest
that individuals are closely linked to the people around
them and therefore value interdependence, also known as
collectivism. Children in East Asian societies are taught to
prioritize maintaining balanced and harmonious
relationships, and the dominant expectations stress unity,
social connection, and a strong sense of duty toward family
members. Illustrating these differences, research by
Shinobu Kitayama and his colleagues showed that East
Asians tend to feel happy mainly through their relationships
with others, while Westerners are more likely to feel
happiness through their own personal accomplishments.
3. Understanding cultures and their differences is essential,
partly because people from diverse cultural backgrounds
are interacting more frequently due to increased travel,
immigration, and the growth of the internet and modern
communication tools. For example, the United States is
home to a wide range of ethnic communities, and the
percentage of residents belonging to minority groups
continues to rise each year. Recognizing cultural
differences and reflecting on how they shape our
interactions with others is a key element of developing a
basic understanding of social psychology.

Urban Decline in Detroit
1. Detroit was once the fourth largest city in the United States.
Its population rose from nearly 300,000 in 1900 to around
1.8 million in 1950, as large numbers of workers moved
there to find employment in car manufacturing plants. By
1960, the city recorded the highest income per person in the
country. Today, however, Detroit faces serious decline. More
than 40,000 buildings are vacant or unused, and property
values have dropped by over 80%.
2. During the period from 1900 to 1950, Detroit’s economy
expanded rapidly. Leading American automobile companies
such as General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler were all based
in the city, producing most of the cars sold in the United
States. Over time, increased international competition and
falling sales of American cars led to widespread job losses in
Detroit’s factories. The city depended too heavily on a single
industry, so when the car industry struggled, Detroit’s overall
economy was badly affected. Fewer car sales also resulted
in lower tax income from car companies, reducing the city’s
already limited government budget.
3. As Detroit’s car industry continued to decline, employment
opportunities fell and unemployment reached 30% by 2013.
More than 60% of people who are employed now work
outside the city. Despite these difficulties, there are signs of
recovery. Urban farms are developing across Detroit, and
young people; particularly artists and musicians, are moving
into the city to benefit from affordable spaces. The city
government has also introduced new policies, including low
rents and tax cuts, to attract businesses back to Detroit.

Urban Decline in Detroit
1. Detroit was once the fourth largest city in the United States.
Its population rose from nearly 300,000 in 1900 to around
1.8 million in 1950, as large numbers of workers moved
there to find employment in car manufacturing plants. By
1960, the city recorded the highest income per person in the
country. Today, however, Detroit faces serious decline. More
than 40,000 buildings are vacant or unused, and property
values have dropped by over 80%.
2. During the period from 1900 to 1950, Detroit’s economy
expanded rapidly. Leading American automobile companies
such as General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler were all based
in the city, producing most of the cars sold in the United
States. Over time, increased international competition and
falling sales of American cars led to widespread job losses in
Detroit’s factories. The city depended too heavily on a single
industry, so when the car industry struggled, Detroit’s overall
economy was badly affected. Fewer car sales also resulted
in lower tax income from car companies, reducing the city’s
already limited government budget.
3. As Detroit’s car industry continued to decline, employment
opportunities fell and unemployment reached 30% by 2013.
More than 60% of people who are employed now work
outside the city. Despite these difficulties, there are signs of
recovery. Urban farms are developing across Detroit, and
young people; particularly artists and musicians, are moving
into the city to benefit from affordable spaces. The city
government has also introduced new policies, including low
rents and tax cuts, to attract businesses back to Detroit.