اختبار اليوم الـ١٢: قراءة 

Nonstore Retailing
1.Even today, most people still buy products in the
traditional way. They visit physical stores, look for the
items they need, stand in checkout lines, pay with
cash or cards, and take their purchases home. Yet
shoppers now have many other choices available,
such as mail-order catalogs, television shopping,
phone orders, and online purchasing. More and more
Americans are choosing to avoid crowded malls and
long waits by shopping through their computers
instead.
2.At first, expectations for online retailing were extremely
high. As internet use grew rapidly, some analysts
predicted that shoppers would eventually abandon the
slow-moving “old economy” retailers and rely almost
entirely on online stores. These optimistic views
collapsed after the dot-com crash of 2000. Numerous
bold online retailers failed, and confidence in internet
retailing dropped sharply. Almost immediately, experts
began to argue that online shopping would remain
only a minor addition to traditional store-based
retailing.
3.Today, however, online retailing is strong and
expanding. Websites are now more user-friendly and
appealing, customer service has improved, and search
technologies have become far more advanced. As a
result, online sales are rising quickly. Although internet
purchases currently represent just 7 percent of total
retail sales in the United States, they are increasing
much faster than retail sales overall. Even with a weak
economy; or possibly because of it, online sales are
expected to reach about $156 billion this year, an
increase of 11 percent from the previous year.
4.Retail websites also play a major role in influencing
purchases made in physical stores. Consider these
notable figures: 80 percent of consumers look up
products online before buying them in a store, and 62
percent report spending at least half an hour online
each week to help decide what to purchase. Shopping
is no longer simply a choice between visiting a store or
shopping online. Instead, consumers are combining
both methods into one connected buying experience.
The internet has created a new type of shopper and a
new approach to shopping.
5.Today, retailers of all kinds use direct and online selling
methods. Large traditional retailers such as Sears,
Staples, Wal-Mart, and Best Buy are seeing rapid growth
in their online sales. At the same time, major online-only
companies; including Amazon.com, the auction site
eBay, and travel services like Travelocity.com and
Expedia.com, have become highly successful on the
internet. On the opposite end, many small niche
marketers are also using the web to enter new markets
and increase sales. Advanced search engines like
Google and Baidu, along with comparison-shopping
websites such as Shopping.com, Buy.com, and
Shopzilla.com, make it easy for millions of customers to
reach nearly any online retailer with just a few clicks.
6.Nevertheless, much of the future growth in online sales
is expected to benefit multichannel retailers; those clickand-
brick businesses that effectively connect online and
physical stores. A recent list of the top 500 online retail
websites showed that 55 percent were multichannel
retailers. Macy’s, the largest department store chain in
the United States, offers a clear example. While many
customers shop on Macy’s website, the site is designed
to strengthen customer loyalty and encourage visits to
physical stores. Like many retailers, Macy’s has learned
that its most valuable customers are those who shop
both online and in stores.

Nonstore Retailing
1.Even today, most people still buy products in the
traditional way. They visit physical stores, look for the
items they need, stand in checkout lines, pay with
cash or cards, and take their purchases home. Yet
shoppers now have many other choices available,
such as mail-order catalogs, television shopping,
phone orders, and online purchasing. More and more
Americans are choosing to avoid crowded malls and
long waits by shopping through their computers
instead.
2.At first, expectations for online retailing were extremely
high. As internet use grew rapidly, some analysts
predicted that shoppers would eventually abandon the
slow-moving “old economy” retailers and rely almost
entirely on online stores. These optimistic views
collapsed after the dot-com crash of 2000. Numerous
bold online retailers failed, and confidence in internet
retailing dropped sharply. Almost immediately, experts
began to argue that online shopping would remain
only a minor addition to traditional store-based
retailing.
3.Today, however, online retailing is strong and
expanding. Websites are now more user-friendly and
appealing, customer service has improved, and search
technologies have become far more advanced. As a
result, online sales are rising quickly. Although internet
purchases currently represent just 7 percent of total
retail sales in the United States, they are increasing
much faster than retail sales overall. Even with a weak
economy; or possibly because of it, online sales are
expected to reach about $156 billion this year, an
increase of 11 percent from the previous year.
4.Retail websites also play a major role in influencing
purchases made in physical stores. Consider these
notable figures: 80 percent of consumers look up
products online before buying them in a store, and 62
percent report spending at least half an hour online
each week to help decide what to purchase. Shopping
is no longer simply a choice between visiting a store or
shopping online. Instead, consumers are combining
both methods into one connected buying experience.
The internet has created a new type of shopper and a
new approach to shopping.
5.Today, retailers of all kinds use direct and online selling
methods. Large traditional retailers such as Sears,
Staples, Wal-Mart, and Best Buy are seeing rapid growth
in their online sales. At the same time, major online-only
companies; including Amazon.com, the auction site
eBay, and travel services like Travelocity.com and
Expedia.com, have become highly successful on the
internet. On the opposite end, many small niche
marketers are also using the web to enter new markets
and increase sales. Advanced search engines like
Google and Baidu, along with comparison-shopping
websites such as Shopping.com, Buy.com, and
Shopzilla.com, make it easy for millions of customers to
reach nearly any online retailer with just a few clicks.
6.Nevertheless, much of the future growth in online sales
is expected to benefit multichannel retailers; those clickand-
brick businesses that effectively connect online and
physical stores. A recent list of the top 500 online retail
websites showed that 55 percent were multichannel
retailers. Macy’s, the largest department store chain in
the United States, offers a clear example. While many
customers shop on Macy’s website, the site is designed
to strengthen customer loyalty and encourage visits to
physical stores. Like many retailers, Macy’s has learned
that its most valuable customers are those who shop
both online and in stores.

Nonstore Retailing
1.Even today, most people still buy products in the
traditional way. They visit physical stores, look for the
items they need, stand in checkout lines, pay with
cash or cards, and take their purchases home. Yet
shoppers now have many other choices available,
such as mail-order catalogs, television shopping,
phone orders, and online purchasing. More and more
Americans are choosing to avoid crowded malls and
long waits by shopping through their computers
instead.
2.At first, expectations for online retailing were extremely
high. As internet use grew rapidly, some analysts
predicted that shoppers would eventually abandon the
slow-moving “old economy” retailers and rely almost
entirely on online stores. These optimistic views
collapsed after the dot-com crash of 2000. Numerous
bold online retailers failed, and confidence in internet
retailing dropped sharply. Almost immediately, experts
began to argue that online shopping would remain
only a minor addition to traditional store-based
retailing.
3.Today, however, online retailing is strong and
expanding. Websites are now more user-friendly and
appealing, customer service has improved, and search
technologies have become far more advanced. As a
result, online sales are rising quickly. Although internet
purchases currently represent just 7 percent of total
retail sales in the United States, they are increasing
much faster than retail sales overall. Even with a weak
economy; or possibly because of it, online sales are
expected to reach about $156 billion this year, an
increase of 11 percent from the previous year.
4.Retail websites also play a major role in influencing
purchases made in physical stores. Consider these
notable figures: 80 percent of consumers look up
products online before buying them in a store, and 62
percent report spending at least half an hour online
each week to help decide what to purchase. Shopping
is no longer simply a choice between visiting a store or
shopping online. Instead, consumers are combining
both methods into one connected buying experience.
The internet has created a new type of shopper and a
new approach to shopping.
5.Today, retailers of all kinds use direct and online selling
methods. Large traditional retailers such as Sears,
Staples, Wal-Mart, and Best Buy are seeing rapid growth
in their online sales. At the same time, major online-only
companies; including Amazon.com, the auction site
eBay, and travel services like Travelocity.com and
Expedia.com, have become highly successful on the
internet. On the opposite end, many small niche
marketers are also using the web to enter new markets
and increase sales. Advanced search engines like
Google and Baidu, along with comparison-shopping
websites such as Shopping.com, Buy.com, and
Shopzilla.com, make it easy for millions of customers to
reach nearly any online retailer with just a few clicks.
6.Nevertheless, much of the future growth in online sales
is expected to benefit multichannel retailers; those clickand-
brick businesses that effectively connect online and
physical stores. A recent list of the top 500 online retail
websites showed that 55 percent were multichannel
retailers. Macy’s, the largest department store chain in
the United States, offers a clear example. While many
customers shop on Macy’s website, the site is designed
to strengthen customer loyalty and encourage visits to
physical stores. Like many retailers, Macy’s has learned
that its most valuable customers are those who shop
both online and in stores.

Nonstore Retailing
1.Even today, most people still buy products in the
traditional way. They visit physical stores, look for the
items they need, stand in checkout lines, pay with
cash or cards, and take their purchases home. Yet
shoppers now have many other choices available,
such as mail-order catalogs, television shopping,
phone orders, and online purchasing. More and more
Americans are choosing to avoid crowded malls and
long waits by shopping through their computers
instead.
2.At first, expectations for online retailing were extremely
high. As internet use grew rapidly, some analysts
predicted that shoppers would eventually abandon the
slow-moving “old economy” retailers and rely almost
entirely on online stores. These optimistic views
collapsed after the dot-com crash of 2000. Numerous
bold online retailers failed, and confidence in internet
retailing dropped sharply. Almost immediately, experts
began to argue that online shopping would remain
only a minor addition to traditional store-based
retailing.
3.Today, however, online retailing is strong and
expanding. Websites are now more user-friendly and
appealing, customer service has improved, and search
technologies have become far more advanced. As a
result, online sales are rising quickly. Although internet
purchases currently represent just 7 percent of total
retail sales in the United States, they are increasing
much faster than retail sales overall. Even with a weak
economy; or possibly because of it, online sales are
expected to reach about $156 billion this year, an
increase of 11 percent from the previous year.
4.Retail websites also play a major role in influencing
purchases made in physical stores. Consider these
notable figures: 80 percent of consumers look up
products online before buying them in a store, and 62
percent report spending at least half an hour online
each week to help decide what to purchase. Shopping
is no longer simply a choice between visiting a store or
shopping online. Instead, consumers are combining
both methods into one connected buying experience.
The internet has created a new type of shopper and a
new approach to shopping.
5.Today, retailers of all kinds use direct and online selling
methods. Large traditional retailers such as Sears,
Staples, Wal-Mart, and Best Buy are seeing rapid growth
in their online sales. At the same time, major online-only
companies; including Amazon.com, the auction site
eBay, and travel services like Travelocity.com and
Expedia.com, have become highly successful on the
internet. On the opposite end, many small niche
marketers are also using the web to enter new markets
and increase sales. Advanced search engines like
Google and Baidu, along with comparison-shopping
websites such as Shopping.com, Buy.com, and
Shopzilla.com, make it easy for millions of customers to
reach nearly any online retailer with just a few clicks.
6.Nevertheless, much of the future growth in online sales
is expected to benefit multichannel retailers; those clickand-
brick businesses that effectively connect online and
physical stores. A recent list of the top 500 online retail
websites showed that 55 percent were multichannel
retailers. Macy’s, the largest department store chain in
the United States, offers a clear example. While many
customers shop on Macy’s website, the site is designed
to strengthen customer loyalty and encourage visits to
physical stores. Like many retailers, Macy’s has learned
that its most valuable customers are those who shop
both online and in stores.

Yellowstone National Park
1.At one time, Yellowstone National Park was home to a large
population of wolves. However, by 1926, people had hunted
them until none remained in the park. When wolves
disappeared, many parts of Yellowstone’s natural system
were affected.
2.The most noticeable result was a sharp rise in the elk
population. This increase caused harm to plants and other
animals living in the park. Officials attempted to manage elk
numbers by allowing hunting, but during the late 1960s and
1970s, government leaders and park managers began to
think differently. They decided the park should rely on
natural methods to keep wildlife populations balanced.
3.In 1995, Congress approved a plan to bring gray wolves
back to Yellowstone. The first group arrived from Canada
the following year. Changes in the park appeared very
quickly. After wolves returned, elk numbers dropped. This
created an unexpected result: willow trees and aspen,
which elk usually eat, began to grow in greater numbers. As
willow trees spread, beaver populations also increased
because they depend on willows for food.
4.Furthermore, certain songbirds and small mammals that live
among aspen trees became more common. The benefits
were not limited to these animals. Scavengers; animals that
feed on dead animals, also increased in number showing
that the return of wolves helped many parts of the
ecosystem.

Yellowstone National Park
1.At one time, Yellowstone National Park was home to a large
population of wolves. However, by 1926, people had hunted
them until none remained in the park. When wolves
disappeared, many parts of Yellowstone’s natural system
were affected.
2.The most noticeable result was a sharp rise in the elk
population. This increase caused harm to plants and other
animals living in the park. Officials attempted to manage elk
numbers by allowing hunting, but during the late 1960s and
1970s, government leaders and park managers began to
think differently. They decided the park should rely on
natural methods to keep wildlife populations balanced.
3.In 1995, Congress approved a plan to bring gray wolves
back to Yellowstone. The first group arrived from Canada
the following year. Changes in the park appeared very
quickly. After wolves returned, elk numbers dropped. This
created an unexpected result: willow trees and aspen,
which elk usually eat, began to grow in greater numbers. As
willow trees spread, beaver populations also increased
because they depend on willows for food.
4.Furthermore, certain songbirds and small mammals that live
among aspen trees became more common. The benefits
were not limited to these animals. Scavengers; animals that
feed on dead animals, also increased in number showing
that the return of wolves helped many parts of the
ecosystem.

Yellowstone National Park
1.At one time, Yellowstone National Park was home to a large
population of wolves. However, by 1926, people had hunted
them until none remained in the park. When wolves
disappeared, many parts of Yellowstone’s natural system
were affected.
2.The most noticeable result was a sharp rise in the elk
population. This increase caused harm to plants and other
animals living in the park. Officials attempted to manage elk
numbers by allowing hunting, but during the late 1960s and
1970s, government leaders and park managers began to
think differently. They decided the park should rely on
natural methods to keep wildlife populations balanced.
3.In 1995, Congress approved a plan to bring gray wolves
back to Yellowstone. The first group arrived from Canada
the following year. Changes in the park appeared very
quickly. After wolves returned, elk numbers dropped. This
created an unexpected result: willow trees and aspen,
which elk usually eat, began to grow in greater numbers. As
willow trees spread, beaver populations also increased
because they depend on willows for food.
4.Furthermore, certain songbirds and small mammals that live
among aspen trees became more common. The benefits
were not limited to these animals. Scavengers; animals that
feed on dead animals, also increased in number showing
that the return of wolves helped many parts of the
ecosystem.

Yellowstone National Park
1.At one time, Yellowstone National Park was home to a large
population of wolves. However, by 1926, people had hunted
them until none remained in the park. When wolves
disappeared, many parts of Yellowstone’s natural system
were affected.
2.The most noticeable result was a sharp rise in the elk
population. This increase caused harm to plants and other
animals living in the park. Officials attempted to manage elk
numbers by allowing hunting, but during the late 1960s and
1970s, government leaders and park managers began to
think differently. They decided the park should rely on
natural methods to keep wildlife populations balanced.
3.In 1995, Congress approved a plan to bring gray wolves
back to Yellowstone. The first group arrived from Canada
the following year. Changes in the park appeared very
quickly. After wolves returned, elk numbers dropped. This
created an unexpected result: willow trees and aspen,
which elk usually eat, began to grow in greater numbers. As
willow trees spread, beaver populations also increased
because they depend on willows for food.
4.Furthermore, certain songbirds and small mammals that live
among aspen trees became more common. The benefits
were not limited to these animals. Scavengers; animals that
feed on dead animals, also increased in number showing
that the return of wolves helped many parts of the
ecosystem.

Plastic Pollution and Plastic Bag Bans
1.Non-biodegradable plastics are not decomposed by
natural decomposers when they are thrown into landfill
sites or dropped as litter. So, they stay in the
environment for long periods, occupying useful space
and causing visual pollution. Moreover, thrown-away
plastic bottles may trap small animals, while nylon
fishing lines and nets can catch birds and sea mammals
such as seals and dolphins. As the plastic in water
gradually deteriorate, they fragment into tiny pieces,
which are eaten by fish and birds, making them ill as a
result. Burning plastic can also release harmful and
poisonous gases.
2.Plastic bags cause serious environmental problems
because they take up large amounts of space in landfill
areas. In 2002, the Republic of Ireland responded to this
issue by introducing a plastic bag charge known as the
PlasTax. This measure had a strong impact, reducing
the yearly use of single-use plastic bags from 1.2 billion
to 230 million and lowering the amount of plastic bag
litter. The money collected from this charge is used to
fund environmental protection projects.
3.After that, plastic bag bans and charges began to
spread quickly. According to Jennie Romer, a lawyer at
the Surfrider Foundation and a leading supporter and
specialist in plastic bag laws, more than 400 regulations
across the United States now restrict or tax plastic bags.
These bans did not begin in countries such as the
United States or Ireland; for example, Bangladesh
introduced a nationwide ban in 2002, and Pakistan has
recently announced plans to ban single-use plastic bags
as well. One politician stated, “A small change in our
daily habits will bring great benefits for future
generations.”

Plastic Pollution and Plastic Bag Bans
1.Non-biodegradable plastics are not decomposed by
natural decomposers when they are thrown into landfill
sites or dropped as litter. So, they stay in the
environment for long periods, occupying useful space
and causing visual pollution. Moreover, thrown-away
plastic bottles may trap small animals, while nylon
fishing lines and nets can catch birds and sea mammals
such as seals and dolphins. As the plastic in water
gradually deteriorate, they fragment into tiny pieces,
which are eaten by fish and birds, making them ill as a
result. Burning plastic can also release harmful and
poisonous gases.
2.Plastic bags cause serious environmental problems
because they take up large amounts of space in landfill
areas. In 2002, the Republic of Ireland responded to this
issue by introducing a plastic bag charge known as the
PlasTax. This measure had a strong impact, reducing
the yearly use of single-use plastic bags from 1.2 billion
to 230 million and lowering the amount of plastic bag
litter. The money collected from this charge is used to
fund environmental protection projects.
3.After that, plastic bag bans and charges began to
spread quickly. According to Jennie Romer, a lawyer at
the Surfrider Foundation and a leading supporter and
specialist in plastic bag laws, more than 400 regulations
across the United States now restrict or tax plastic bags.
These bans did not begin in countries such as the
United States or Ireland; for example, Bangladesh
introduced a nationwide ban in 2002, and Pakistan has
recently announced plans to ban single-use plastic bags
as well. One politician stated, “A small change in our
daily habits will bring great benefits for future
generations.”

Plastic Pollution and Plastic Bag Bans
1.Non-biodegradable plastics are not decomposed by
natural decomposers when they are thrown into landfill
sites or dropped as litter. So, they stay in the
environment for long periods, occupying useful space
and causing visual pollution. Moreover, thrown-away
plastic bottles may trap small animals, while nylon
fishing lines and nets can catch birds and sea mammals
such as seals and dolphins. As the plastic in water
gradually deteriorate, they fragment into tiny pieces,
which are eaten by fish and birds, making them ill as a
result. Burning plastic can also release harmful and
poisonous gases.
2.Plastic bags cause serious environmental problems
because they take up large amounts of space in landfill
areas. In 2002, the Republic of Ireland responded to this
issue by introducing a plastic bag charge known as the
PlasTax. This measure had a strong impact, reducing
the yearly use of single-use plastic bags from 1.2 billion
to 230 million and lowering the amount of plastic bag
litter. The money collected from this charge is used to
fund environmental protection projects.
3.After that, plastic bag bans and charges began to
spread quickly. According to Jennie Romer, a lawyer at
the Surfrider Foundation and a leading supporter and
specialist in plastic bag laws, more than 400 regulations
across the United States now restrict or tax plastic bags.
These bans did not begin in countries such as the
United States or Ireland; for example, Bangladesh
introduced a nationwide ban in 2002, and Pakistan has
recently announced plans to ban single-use plastic bags
as well. One politician stated, “A small change in our
daily habits will bring great benefits for future
generations.”

Plastic Pollution and Plastic Bag Bans
1.Non-biodegradable plastics are not decomposed by
natural decomposers when they are thrown into landfill
sites or dropped as litter. So, they stay in the
environment for long periods, occupying useful space
and causing visual pollution. Moreover, thrown-away
plastic bottles may trap small animals, while nylon
fishing lines and nets can catch birds and sea mammals
such as seals and dolphins. As the plastic in water
gradually deteriorate, they fragment into tiny pieces,
which are eaten by fish and birds, making them ill as a
result. Burning plastic can also release harmful and
poisonous gases.
2.Plastic bags cause serious environmental problems
because they take up large amounts of space in landfill
areas. In 2002, the Republic of Ireland responded to this
issue by introducing a plastic bag charge known as the
PlasTax. This measure had a strong impact, reducing
the yearly use of single-use plastic bags from 1.2 billion
to 230 million and lowering the amount of plastic bag
litter. The money collected from this charge is used to
fund environmental protection projects.
3.After that, plastic bag bans and charges began to
spread quickly. According to Jennie Romer, a lawyer at
the Surfrider Foundation and a leading supporter and
specialist in plastic bag laws, more than 400 regulations
across the United States now restrict or tax plastic bags.
These bans did not begin in countries such as the
United States or Ireland; for example, Bangladesh
introduced a nationwide ban in 2002, and Pakistan has
recently announced plans to ban single-use plastic bags
as well. One politician stated, “A small change in our
daily habits will bring great benefits for future
generations.”

Plastic Pollution and Plastic Bag Bans
1.Non-biodegradable plastics are not decomposed by
natural decomposers when they are thrown into landfill
sites or dropped as litter. So, they stay in the
environment for long periods, occupying useful space
and causing visual pollution. Moreover, thrown-away
plastic bottles may trap small animals, while nylon
fishing lines and nets can catch birds and sea mammals
such as seals and dolphins. As the plastic in water
gradually deteriorate, they fragment into tiny pieces,
which are eaten by fish and birds, making them ill as a
result. Burning plastic can also release harmful and
poisonous gases.
2.Plastic bags cause serious environmental problems
because they take up large amounts of space in landfill
areas. In 2002, the Republic of Ireland responded to this
issue by introducing a plastic bag charge known as the
PlasTax. This measure had a strong impact, reducing
the yearly use of single-use plastic bags from 1.2 billion
to 230 million and lowering the amount of plastic bag
litter. The money collected from this charge is used to
fund environmental protection projects.
3.After that, plastic bag bans and charges began to
spread quickly. According to Jennie Romer, a lawyer at
the Surfrider Foundation and a leading supporter and
specialist in plastic bag laws, more than 400 regulations
across the United States now restrict or tax plastic bags.
These bans did not begin in countries such as the
United States or Ireland; for example, Bangladesh
introduced a nationwide ban in 2002, and Pakistan has
recently announced plans to ban single-use plastic bags
as well. One politician stated, “A small change in our
daily habits will bring great benefits for future
generations.”

Toxic Waste
1.Toxic wastes are dangerous materials that result from
various human activities and are no longer wanted. They
originate from numerous sources. For instance, air
pollution comes from cars, power stations, and wasteburning
facilities. Acid rain forms when sulfur, carbon, and
nitrogen oxides released by burning fossil fuels mix with
water vapor in the atmosphere, creating harmful acids.
Industrial waste solvents that are thrown away include light
compounds such as benzene and carbon tetrachloride, as
well as heavier organic substances like PCBs
(polychlorinated biphenyls), which were previously used in
hydraulic systems and electrical equipment such as
transformers and capacitors. Dioxins are produced
unintentionally during the manufacturing of herbicides.
Residues of heavy metals from mining activities, especially
copper and silver extraction, can seep into groundwater,
rivers, and lakes, where they accumulate in fish.
Radioactive wastes come from nuclear power plants,
nuclear weapons production, and, in small amounts, from
the medical and industrial use of radioactive materials.
2.In 1981, the United States produced about 264 million tons
of waste, of which roughly 5.5 million tons were classified
as hazardous. By 1986, the country generated nearly
1,770,000 cubic feet (50,000 cubic meters) of low-level
radioactive waste in solid and liquid forms.
3.A large number of toxic wastes are harmful to living
organisms, including humans, animals, and plants. High
exposure to lead found in paint and gasoline can cause
damage to the nervous system. Toxic organic substances
may result in inflammation of the liver and kidneys. Certain
chemicals, such as PCBs, are believed to be linked to birth
defects. Some organic compounds, including benzene, are
proven to cause cancer in laboratory animals and are
classified as possible cancer-causing agents in humans.
Relatively high concentrations of copper, silver, and other
heavy metals can negatively affect the growth of algae.
4. Certain toxic wastes disrupt natural ecosystems. For
example, the pesticide DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
nearly caused the extinction of the
American bald eagle and significantly reduced populations
of other bird species. It interfered with the birds’ ability to
produce strong eggshells, preventing successful hatching.
Due to its severe impact on bird life, strict limits were
placed on DDT use in the United States in 1972. Additional
regulations required lowering the amount of lead in
gasoline and ending the production of PCBs. Despite these
restrictions, DDT continues to be used in some developing
countries because it is effective in controlling mosquitoes
that spread malaria.
5.The treatment of toxic waste varies depending on its nature
and may involve chemical, biological, or combustion
methods. For example, spills involving acids can be
neutralized using substances such as lime or bicarbonate.
Oil spills in oceans are commonly treated with emulsifiers
that break the oil into smaller droplets, reducing damage to
shorelines and wildlife. Although biological treatment
methods are promising, they are still being developed. So
far, scientists have not identified organisms capable of
surviving toxic conditions while breaking down hazardous
waste quickly, but progress in genetic engineering could
lead to future solutions.
6.High-temperature processes, including combustion, are the
main techniques used to reduce the harmful effects of toxic
wastes. Plasma-based technologies are applied to certain
hazardous materials. These methods rely on extremely
high temperatures to ionize air and fuel gases. When toxic
gases are exposed to these ionized conditions, they break
down into less dangerous substances.Plasma treatment at
temperatures above 1,650°F (900°C) can reduce the
toxicity of emissions such as dioxin vapor by about ten
times more than standard combustion methods.
7. In the United States, burning liquid toxic waste is the most
common treatment method. This process typically involves
spraying the waste into a burner as fine droplets. Another
approach, known as the fixed-hearth method, can treat
both liquid and solid wastes.
This technique uses two stages: first, the waste is partially
burned with limited oxygen, and then it undergoes a second
burning at higher temperatures with excess oxygen to destroy
gases released earlier.
8.A rotary kiln incineration system is another widely used
method. It can process solid waste, liquid waste, mixtures
known as slurries, and even waste stored in containers. In
some cases, hazardous wastes are burned directly as fuel
in industrial boilers or cement kilns.
9.Before final disposal, liquid toxic wastes must be stored
for a period of time. Steel barrels are typically used for
short-term storage. For longer storage durations, materials
that resist corrosion, such as glass or ceramic containers,
are preferred. In the United States, disposing of
hazardous waste through ocean dumping or landfills is no
longer allowed.
10.High-level nuclear wastes in the United States, which
contain substances like plutonium or uranium, are either
transported to reprocessing facilities or stored near
nuclear plants until permanent disposal is arranged. One
modern disposal method, called vitrification, seals nuclear
waste inside glass-like materials that remain stable for
thousands of years. These durable blocks are placed
deep underground in salt mines or solid rock formations.
France has advanced this technique extensively due to its
heavy reliance on nuclear power.
In the United States, low-level radioactive waste is stored at
sites in South Carolina, Nevada, and Washington, often after
being compacted to reduce volume. Some of this low-level
waste is also destroyed through incineration.
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) sets performance standards and issues permits for
thermal destruction of toxic waste. Current regulations require
incinerators to eliminate at least 99.99 percent of major organic
hazardous substances and 99 percent of hydrogen chloride
from exhaust gases. Additional rules govern the release of
solid particles such as dust and ash. Radioactive waste
oversight is shared among the EPA, the Department of Energy
(DOE), and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Each
state manages its own waste, though cooperation between
states is encouraged. In Canada, toxic waste regulation falls
under the Ministry of the Environment, while radioactive waste
is supervised by the Atomic Energy Control Board.

Toxic Waste
1.Toxic wastes are dangerous materials that result from
various human activities and are no longer wanted. They
originate from numerous sources. For instance, air
pollution comes from cars, power stations, and wasteburning
facilities. Acid rain forms when sulfur, carbon, and
nitrogen oxides released by burning fossil fuels mix with
water vapor in the atmosphere, creating harmful acids.
Industrial waste solvents that are thrown away include light
compounds such as benzene and carbon tetrachloride, as
well as heavier organic substances like PCBs
(polychlorinated biphenyls), which were previously used in
hydraulic systems and electrical equipment such as
transformers and capacitors. Dioxins are produced
unintentionally during the manufacturing of herbicides.
Residues of heavy metals from mining activities, especially
copper and silver extraction, can seep into groundwater,
rivers, and lakes, where they accumulate in fish.
Radioactive wastes come from nuclear power plants,
nuclear weapons production, and, in small amounts, from
the medical and industrial use of radioactive materials.
2.In 1981, the United States produced about 264 million tons
of waste, of which roughly 5.5 million tons were classified
as hazardous. By 1986, the country generated nearly
1,770,000 cubic feet (50,000 cubic meters) of low-level
radioactive waste in solid and liquid forms.
3.A large number of toxic wastes are harmful to living
organisms, including humans, animals, and plants. High
exposure to lead found in paint and gasoline can cause
damage to the nervous system. Toxic organic substances
may result in inflammation of the liver and kidneys. Certain
chemicals, such as PCBs, are believed to be linked to birth
defects. Some organic compounds, including benzene, are
proven to cause cancer in laboratory animals and are
classified as possible cancer-causing agents in humans.
Relatively high concentrations of copper, silver, and other
heavy metals can negatively affect the growth of algae.
4. Certain toxic wastes disrupt natural ecosystems. For
example, the pesticide DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
nearly caused the extinction of the
American bald eagle and significantly reduced populations
of other bird species. It interfered with the birds’ ability to
produce strong eggshells, preventing successful hatching.
Due to its severe impact on bird life, strict limits were
placed on DDT use in the United States in 1972. Additional
regulations required lowering the amount of lead in
gasoline and ending the production of PCBs. Despite these
restrictions, DDT continues to be used in some developing
countries because it is effective in controlling mosquitoes
that spread malaria.
5.The treatment of toxic waste varies depending on its nature
and may involve chemical, biological, or combustion
methods. For example, spills involving acids can be
neutralized using substances such as lime or bicarbonate.
Oil spills in oceans are commonly treated with emulsifiers
that break the oil into smaller droplets, reducing damage to
shorelines and wildlife. Although biological treatment
methods are promising, they are still being developed. So
far, scientists have not identified organisms capable of
surviving toxic conditions while breaking down hazardous
waste quickly, but progress in genetic engineering could
lead to future solutions.
6.High-temperature processes, including combustion, are the
main techniques used to reduce the harmful effects of toxic
wastes. Plasma-based technologies are applied to certain
hazardous materials. These methods rely on extremely
high temperatures to ionize air and fuel gases. When toxic
gases are exposed to these ionized conditions, they break
down into less dangerous substances.Plasma treatment at
temperatures above 1,650°F (900°C) can reduce the
toxicity of emissions such as dioxin vapor by about ten
times more than standard combustion methods.
7. In the United States, burning liquid toxic waste is the most
common treatment method. This process typically involves
spraying the waste into a burner as fine droplets. Another
approach, known as the fixed-hearth method, can treat
both liquid and solid wastes.
This technique uses two stages: first, the waste is partially
burned with limited oxygen, and then it undergoes a second
burning at higher temperatures with excess oxygen to destroy
gases released earlier.
8.A rotary kiln incineration system is another widely used
method. It can process solid waste, liquid waste, mixtures
known as slurries, and even waste stored in containers. In
some cases, hazardous wastes are burned directly as fuel
in industrial boilers or cement kilns.
9.Before final disposal, liquid toxic wastes must be stored
for a period of time. Steel barrels are typically used for
short-term storage. For longer storage durations, materials
that resist corrosion, such as glass or ceramic containers,
are preferred. In the United States, disposing of
hazardous waste through ocean dumping or landfills is no
longer allowed.
10.High-level nuclear wastes in the United States, which
contain substances like plutonium or uranium, are either
transported to reprocessing facilities or stored near
nuclear plants until permanent disposal is arranged. One
modern disposal method, called vitrification, seals nuclear
waste inside glass-like materials that remain stable for
thousands of years. These durable blocks are placed
deep underground in salt mines or solid rock formations.
France has advanced this technique extensively due to its
heavy reliance on nuclear power.
In the United States, low-level radioactive waste is stored at
sites in South Carolina, Nevada, and Washington, often after
being compacted to reduce volume. Some of this low-level
waste is also destroyed through incineration.
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) sets performance standards and issues permits for
thermal destruction of toxic waste. Current regulations require
incinerators to eliminate at least 99.99 percent of major organic
hazardous substances and 99 percent of hydrogen chloride
from exhaust gases. Additional rules govern the release of
solid particles such as dust and ash. Radioactive waste
oversight is shared among the EPA, the Department of Energy
(DOE), and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Each
state manages its own waste, though cooperation between
states is encouraged. In Canada, toxic waste regulation falls
under the Ministry of the Environment, while radioactive waste
is supervised by the Atomic Energy Control Board.

Toxic Waste
1.Toxic wastes are dangerous materials that result from
various human activities and are no longer wanted. They
originate from numerous sources. For instance, air
pollution comes from cars, power stations, and wasteburning
facilities. Acid rain forms when sulfur, carbon, and
nitrogen oxides released by burning fossil fuels mix with
water vapor in the atmosphere, creating harmful acids.
Industrial waste solvents that are thrown away include light
compounds such as benzene and carbon tetrachloride, as
well as heavier organic substances like PCBs
(polychlorinated biphenyls), which were previously used in
hydraulic systems and electrical equipment such as
transformers and capacitors. Dioxins are produced
unintentionally during the manufacturing of herbicides.
Residues of heavy metals from mining activities, especially
copper and silver extraction, can seep into groundwater,
rivers, and lakes, where they accumulate in fish.
Radioactive wastes come from nuclear power plants,
nuclear weapons production, and, in small amounts, from
the medical and industrial use of radioactive materials.
2.In 1981, the United States produced about 264 million tons
of waste, of which roughly 5.5 million tons were classified
as hazardous. By 1986, the country generated nearly
1,770,000 cubic feet (50,000 cubic meters) of low-level
radioactive waste in solid and liquid forms.
3.A large number of toxic wastes are harmful to living
organisms, including humans, animals, and plants. High
exposure to lead found in paint and gasoline can cause
damage to the nervous system. Toxic organic substances
may result in inflammation of the liver and kidneys. Certain
chemicals, such as PCBs, are believed to be linked to birth
defects. Some organic compounds, including benzene, are
proven to cause cancer in laboratory animals and are
classified as possible cancer-causing agents in humans.
Relatively high concentrations of copper, silver, and other
heavy metals can negatively affect the growth of algae.
4. Certain toxic wastes disrupt natural ecosystems. For
example, the pesticide DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
nearly caused the extinction of the
American bald eagle and significantly reduced populations
of other bird species. It interfered with the birds’ ability to
produce strong eggshells, preventing successful hatching.
Due to its severe impact on bird life, strict limits were
placed on DDT use in the United States in 1972. Additional
regulations required lowering the amount of lead in
gasoline and ending the production of PCBs. Despite these
restrictions, DDT continues to be used in some developing
countries because it is effective in controlling mosquitoes
that spread malaria.
5.The treatment of toxic waste varies depending on its nature
and may involve chemical, biological, or combustion
methods. For example, spills involving acids can be
neutralized using substances such as lime or bicarbonate.
Oil spills in oceans are commonly treated with emulsifiers
that break the oil into smaller droplets, reducing damage to
shorelines and wildlife. Although biological treatment
methods are promising, they are still being developed. So
far, scientists have not identified organisms capable of
surviving toxic conditions while breaking down hazardous
waste quickly, but progress in genetic engineering could
lead to future solutions.
6.High-temperature processes, including combustion, are the
main techniques used to reduce the harmful effects of toxic
wastes. Plasma-based technologies are applied to certain
hazardous materials. These methods rely on extremely
high temperatures to ionize air and fuel gases. When toxic
gases are exposed to these ionized conditions, they break
down into less dangerous substances.Plasma treatment at
temperatures above 1,650°F (900°C) can reduce the
toxicity of emissions such as dioxin vapor by about ten
times more than standard combustion methods.
7. In the United States, burning liquid toxic waste is the most
common treatment method. This process typically involves
spraying the waste into a burner as fine droplets. Another
approach, known as the fixed-hearth method, can treat
both liquid and solid wastes.
This technique uses two stages: first, the waste is partially
burned with limited oxygen, and then it undergoes a second
burning at higher temperatures with excess oxygen to destroy
gases released earlier.
8.A rotary kiln incineration system is another widely used
method. It can process solid waste, liquid waste, mixtures
known as slurries, and even waste stored in containers. In
some cases, hazardous wastes are burned directly as fuel
in industrial boilers or cement kilns.
9.Before final disposal, liquid toxic wastes must be stored
for a period of time. Steel barrels are typically used for
short-term storage. For longer storage durations, materials
that resist corrosion, such as glass or ceramic containers,
are preferred. In the United States, disposing of
hazardous waste through ocean dumping or landfills is no
longer allowed.
10.High-level nuclear wastes in the United States, which
contain substances like plutonium or uranium, are either
transported to reprocessing facilities or stored near
nuclear plants until permanent disposal is arranged. One
modern disposal method, called vitrification, seals nuclear
waste inside glass-like materials that remain stable for
thousands of years. These durable blocks are placed
deep underground in salt mines or solid rock formations.
France has advanced this technique extensively due to its
heavy reliance on nuclear power.
In the United States, low-level radioactive waste is stored at
sites in South Carolina, Nevada, and Washington, often after
being compacted to reduce volume. Some of this low-level
waste is also destroyed through incineration.
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) sets performance standards and issues permits for
thermal destruction of toxic waste. Current regulations require
incinerators to eliminate at least 99.99 percent of major organic
hazardous substances and 99 percent of hydrogen chloride
from exhaust gases. Additional rules govern the release of
solid particles such as dust and ash. Radioactive waste
oversight is shared among the EPA, the Department of Energy
(DOE), and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Each
state manages its own waste, though cooperation between
states is encouraged. In Canada, toxic waste regulation falls
under the Ministry of the Environment, while radioactive waste
is supervised by the Atomic Energy Control Board.

Controlling Inflation
Passage A
1. Inflation happens when an economy expands as a result
of higher levels of spending. When this occurs, the general
level of prices increases, and the value of the currency
falls. In other words, the same amount of money can no
longer purchase as many goods or services as before.
2.There are several ways to manage inflation, but not all of
them are effective, and some can even harm the economy.
For instance, using wage and price controls to limit inflation
may result in an economic downturn and lead to higher
unemployment.
Contractionary Monetary Policy
3.A widely used approach to controlling inflation is
contractionary monetary policy. This policy aims to limit the
amount of money circulating in the economy by raising
interest rates and lowering bond prices. As a result,
spending decreases because people prefer to save their
money rather than spend it when money becomes harder
to access.
Reserve Requirements
4.Another method involves increasing reserve requirements,
which are the minimum amounts of money banks must
keep available to meet withdrawal demands. When banks
are required to hold more reserves, they have less money
available to lend to consumers.
Fiscal Policy
5.Governments may also raise taxes, such as income tax
and value-added tax (VAT), while reducing public
spending. These actions improve the government’s
financial position and lower overall demand in the
economy.
6.Both monetary and fiscal policies help reduce inflation by
slowing the growth of aggregate demand. When an
economy is growing quickly, limiting the rise in aggregate
demand can ease inflationary pressure without pushing the
economy into a recession.
7.However, if a country is already experiencing high inflation
along with negative economic growth, reducing aggregate
demand becomes less desirable. Although inflation could
still be reduced, doing so would likely cause lower
production levels and increased unemployment, making
the economic impact more severe.
Passage B
1.Inflation is a complicated issue in any economy. While a
small amount of inflation is generally beneficial, excessive
inflation can seriously damage economic stability. As a
result, governments apply different strategies to manage
various forms of inflation, as outlined below.
Demand Pull Inflation Control
2.To control demand-pull inflation, governments apply a
combination of monetary actions and adjustments to fiscal
policy.
Monetary Measures
3.One commonly adopted method to reduce inflation is
limiting the money supply. When the government reduces
the amount of money available, demand falls, which then
causes prices to decrease. This may involve removing
certain banknotes or coins from circulation, thereby
shrinking the money supply.
4. It is also important to recognize that a large share of the
money supply exists within banks as deposits or credit.
By lowering the amount of money banks can lend, the
government can significantly reduce the overall money
supply in the economy.
Fiscal Policy Measures to Control Inflation
5.In addition to monetary tools, governments rely on fiscal
measures to manage inflation. Fiscal policy mainly
consists of two parts: government income and
government spending.
6.Inflationary pressure occurs when aggregate demand
exceeds aggregate supply. To deal with this situation,
governments may introduce the following fiscal measures:
Reduce total government spending and transfer
payments.
Raise taxes so individuals reduce their spending,
which lowers demand and decreases the money supply in
the economy.

Controlling Inflation
Passage A
1. Inflation happens when an economy expands as a result
of higher levels of spending. When this occurs, the general
level of prices increases, and the value of the currency
falls. In other words, the same amount of money can no
longer purchase as many goods or services as before.
2.There are several ways to manage inflation, but not all of
them are effective, and some can even harm the economy.
For instance, using wage and price controls to limit inflation
may result in an economic downturn and lead to higher
unemployment.
Contractionary Monetary Policy
3.A widely used approach to controlling inflation is
contractionary monetary policy. This policy aims to limit the
amount of money circulating in the economy by raising
interest rates and lowering bond prices. As a result,
spending decreases because people prefer to save their
money rather than spend it when money becomes harder
to access.
Reserve Requirements
4.Another method involves increasing reserve requirements,
which are the minimum amounts of money banks must
keep available to meet withdrawal demands. When banks
are required to hold more reserves, they have less money
available to lend to consumers.
Fiscal Policy
5.Governments may also raise taxes, such as income tax
and value-added tax (VAT), while reducing public
spending. These actions improve the government’s
financial position and lower overall demand in the
economy.
6.Both monetary and fiscal policies help reduce inflation by
slowing the growth of aggregate demand. When an
economy is growing quickly, limiting the rise in aggregate
demand can ease inflationary pressure without pushing the
economy into a recession.
7.However, if a country is already experiencing high inflation
along with negative economic growth, reducing aggregate
demand becomes less desirable. Although inflation could
still be reduced, doing so would likely cause lower
production levels and increased unemployment, making
the economic impact more severe.
Passage B
1.Inflation is a complicated issue in any economy. While a
small amount of inflation is generally beneficial, excessive
inflation can seriously damage economic stability. As a
result, governments apply different strategies to manage
various forms of inflation, as outlined below.
Demand Pull Inflation Control
2.To control demand-pull inflation, governments apply a
combination of monetary actions and adjustments to fiscal
policy.
Monetary Measures
3.One commonly adopted method to reduce inflation is
limiting the money supply. When the government reduces
the amount of money available, demand falls, which then
causes prices to decrease. This may involve removing
certain banknotes or coins from circulation, thereby
shrinking the money supply.
4. It is also important to recognize that a large share of the
money supply exists within banks as deposits or credit.
By lowering the amount of money banks can lend, the
government can significantly reduce the overall money
supply in the economy.
Fiscal Policy Measures to Control Inflation
5.In addition to monetary tools, governments rely on fiscal
measures to manage inflation. Fiscal policy mainly
consists of two parts: government income and
government spending.
6.Inflationary pressure occurs when aggregate demand
exceeds aggregate supply. To deal with this situation,
governments may introduce the following fiscal measures:
Reduce total government spending and transfer
payments.
Raise taxes so individuals reduce their spending,
which lowers demand and decreases the money supply in
the economy.

Controlling Inflation
Passage A
1. Inflation happens when an economy expands as a result
of higher levels of spending. When this occurs, the general
level of prices increases, and the value of the currency
falls. In other words, the same amount of money can no
longer purchase as many goods or services as before.
2.There are several ways to manage inflation, but not all of
them are effective, and some can even harm the economy.
For instance, using wage and price controls to limit inflation
may result in an economic downturn and lead to higher
unemployment.
Contractionary Monetary Policy
3.A widely used approach to controlling inflation is
contractionary monetary policy. This policy aims to limit the
amount of money circulating in the economy by raising
interest rates and lowering bond prices. As a result,
spending decreases because people prefer to save their
money rather than spend it when money becomes harder
to access.
Reserve Requirements
4.Another method involves increasing reserve requirements,
which are the minimum amounts of money banks must
keep available to meet withdrawal demands. When banks
are required to hold more reserves, they have less money
available to lend to consumers.
Fiscal Policy
5.Governments may also raise taxes, such as income tax
and value-added tax (VAT), while reducing public
spending. These actions improve the government’s
financial position and lower overall demand in the
economy.
6.Both monetary and fiscal policies help reduce inflation by
slowing the growth of aggregate demand. When an
economy is growing quickly, limiting the rise in aggregate
demand can ease inflationary pressure without pushing the
economy into a recession.
7.However, if a country is already experiencing high inflation
along with negative economic growth, reducing aggregate
demand becomes less desirable. Although inflation could
still be reduced, doing so would likely cause lower
production levels and increased unemployment, making
the economic impact more severe.
Passage B
1.Inflation is a complicated issue in any economy. While a
small amount of inflation is generally beneficial, excessive
inflation can seriously damage economic stability. As a
result, governments apply different strategies to manage
various forms of inflation, as outlined below.
Demand Pull Inflation Control
2.To control demand-pull inflation, governments apply a
combination of monetary actions and adjustments to fiscal
policy.
Monetary Measures
3.One commonly adopted method to reduce inflation is
limiting the money supply. When the government reduces
the amount of money available, demand falls, which then
causes prices to decrease. This may involve removing
certain banknotes or coins from circulation, thereby
shrinking the money supply.
4. It is also important to recognize that a large share of the
money supply exists within banks as deposits or credit.
By lowering the amount of money banks can lend, the
government can significantly reduce the overall money
supply in the economy.
Fiscal Policy Measures to Control Inflation
5.In addition to monetary tools, governments rely on fiscal
measures to manage inflation. Fiscal policy mainly
consists of two parts: government income and
government spending.
6.Inflationary pressure occurs when aggregate demand
exceeds aggregate supply. To deal with this situation,
governments may introduce the following fiscal measures:
Reduce total government spending and transfer
payments.
Raise taxes so individuals reduce their spending,
which lowers demand and decreases the money supply in
the economy.

Controlling Inflation
Passage A
1. Inflation happens when an economy expands as a result
of higher levels of spending. When this occurs, the general
level of prices increases, and the value of the currency
falls. In other words, the same amount of money can no
longer purchase as many goods or services as before.
2.There are several ways to manage inflation, but not all of
them are effective, and some can even harm the economy.
For instance, using wage and price controls to limit inflation
may result in an economic downturn and lead to higher
unemployment.
Contractionary Monetary Policy
3.A widely used approach to controlling inflation is
contractionary monetary policy. This policy aims to limit the
amount of money circulating in the economy by raising
interest rates and lowering bond prices. As a result,
spending decreases because people prefer to save their
money rather than spend it when money becomes harder
to access.
Reserve Requirements
4.Another method involves increasing reserve requirements,
which are the minimum amounts of money banks must
keep available to meet withdrawal demands. When banks
are required to hold more reserves, they have less money
available to lend to consumers.
Fiscal Policy
5.Governments may also raise taxes, such as income tax
and value-added tax (VAT), while reducing public
spending. These actions improve the government’s
financial position and lower overall demand in the
economy.
6.Both monetary and fiscal policies help reduce inflation by
slowing the growth of aggregate demand. When an
economy is growing quickly, limiting the rise in aggregate
demand can ease inflationary pressure without pushing the
economy into a recession.
7.However, if a country is already experiencing high inflation
along with negative economic growth, reducing aggregate
demand becomes less desirable. Although inflation could
still be reduced, doing so would likely cause lower
production levels and increased unemployment, making
the economic impact more severe.
Passage B
1.Inflation is a complicated issue in any economy. While a
small amount of inflation is generally beneficial, excessive
inflation can seriously damage economic stability. As a
result, governments apply different strategies to manage
various forms of inflation, as outlined below.
Demand Pull Inflation Control
2.To control demand-pull inflation, governments apply a
combination of monetary actions and adjustments to fiscal
policy.
Monetary Measures
3.One commonly adopted method to reduce inflation is
limiting the money supply. When the government reduces
the amount of money available, demand falls, which then
causes prices to decrease. This may involve removing
certain banknotes or coins from circulation, thereby
shrinking the money supply.
4. It is also important to recognize that a large share of the
money supply exists within banks as deposits or credit.
By lowering the amount of money banks can lend, the
government can significantly reduce the overall money
supply in the economy.
Fiscal Policy Measures to Control Inflation
5.In addition to monetary tools, governments rely on fiscal
measures to manage inflation. Fiscal policy mainly
consists of two parts: government income and
government spending.
6.Inflationary pressure occurs when aggregate demand
exceeds aggregate supply. To deal with this situation,
governments may introduce the following fiscal measures:
Reduce total government spending and transfer
payments.
Raise taxes so individuals reduce their spending,
which lowers demand and decreases the money supply in
the economy.

Dopamine
1.What do Parkinson’s disease and drug addiction share?
Both are linked to abnormal amounts of dopamine.
Dopamine is a chemical that works as a signal carrier
between brain cells. It is essential for many everyday
actions. For example, it affects how we move, what foods
we choose, how we learn new things, and even whether a
person develops a drug addiction.
2.In the brain, these chemical signal carriers are known as
neurotransmitters. They move across the tiny gaps that
separate brain cells. After crossing these gaps, they attach
to special molecules called receptors. These receptors
pass the message from one cell on to the next.
3.Various neurotransmitters are produced in specific areas of
the brain. Dopamine is mainly created in two important
regions. One of them is the substantia nigra, which is a
narrow band of tissue located at the base of the brain. This
area is part of the midbrain. Nearby is another region
called the ventral tegmental area, which also produces
dopamine.
4.The substantia nigra plays a key role in controlling
movement. Its name comes from Latin and means “black
substance.” This name fits because the area appears dark
grey or black in color. The dark color is caused by another
chemical made by the same cells that produce dopamine.
5.Both of these dopamine-producing regions are extremely
small and thin. Together, they are less than the size of a
postage stamp. Even so, the dopamine they release sends
signals across large parts of the brain. Dopamine coming
from the substantia nigra helps start movement and
speech.

Dopamine
1.What do Parkinson’s disease and drug addiction share?
Both are linked to abnormal amounts of dopamine.
Dopamine is a chemical that works as a signal carrier
between brain cells. It is essential for many everyday
actions. For example, it affects how we move, what foods
we choose, how we learn new things, and even whether a
person develops a drug addiction.
2.In the brain, these chemical signal carriers are known as
neurotransmitters. They move across the tiny gaps that
separate brain cells. After crossing these gaps, they attach
to special molecules called receptors. These receptors
pass the message from one cell on to the next.
3.Various neurotransmitters are produced in specific areas of
the brain. Dopamine is mainly created in two important
regions. One of them is the substantia nigra, which is a
narrow band of tissue located at the base of the brain. This
area is part of the midbrain. Nearby is another region
called the ventral tegmental area, which also produces
dopamine.
4.The substantia nigra plays a key role in controlling
movement. Its name comes from Latin and means “black
substance.” This name fits because the area appears dark
grey or black in color. The dark color is caused by another
chemical made by the same cells that produce dopamine.
5.Both of these dopamine-producing regions are extremely
small and thin. Together, they are less than the size of a
postage stamp. Even so, the dopamine they release sends
signals across large parts of the brain. Dopamine coming
from the substantia nigra helps start movement and
speech.

Dopamine
1.What do Parkinson’s disease and drug addiction share?
Both are linked to abnormal amounts of dopamine.
Dopamine is a chemical that works as a signal carrier
between brain cells. It is essential for many everyday
actions. For example, it affects how we move, what foods
we choose, how we learn new things, and even whether a
person develops a drug addiction.
2.In the brain, these chemical signal carriers are known as
neurotransmitters. They move across the tiny gaps that
separate brain cells. After crossing these gaps, they attach
to special molecules called receptors. These receptors
pass the message from one cell on to the next.
3.Various neurotransmitters are produced in specific areas of
the brain. Dopamine is mainly created in two important
regions. One of them is the substantia nigra, which is a
narrow band of tissue located at the base of the brain. This
area is part of the midbrain. Nearby is another region
called the ventral tegmental area, which also produces
dopamine.
4.The substantia nigra plays a key role in controlling
movement. Its name comes from Latin and means “black
substance.” This name fits because the area appears dark
grey or black in color. The dark color is caused by another
chemical made by the same cells that produce dopamine.
5.Both of these dopamine-producing regions are extremely
small and thin. Together, they are less than the size of a
postage stamp. Even so, the dopamine they release sends
signals across large parts of the brain. Dopamine coming
from the substantia nigra helps start movement and
speech.

Dopamine
1.What do Parkinson’s disease and drug addiction share?
Both are linked to abnormal amounts of dopamine.
Dopamine is a chemical that works as a signal carrier
between brain cells. It is essential for many everyday
actions. For example, it affects how we move, what foods
we choose, how we learn new things, and even whether a
person develops a drug addiction.
2.In the brain, these chemical signal carriers are known as
neurotransmitters. They move across the tiny gaps that
separate brain cells. After crossing these gaps, they attach
to special molecules called receptors. These receptors
pass the message from one cell on to the next.
3.Various neurotransmitters are produced in specific areas of
the brain. Dopamine is mainly created in two important
regions. One of them is the substantia nigra, which is a
narrow band of tissue located at the base of the brain. This
area is part of the midbrain. Nearby is another region
called the ventral tegmental area, which also produces
dopamine.
4.The substantia nigra plays a key role in controlling
movement. Its name comes from Latin and means “black
substance.” This name fits because the area appears dark
grey or black in color. The dark color is caused by another
chemical made by the same cells that produce dopamine.
5.Both of these dopamine-producing regions are extremely
small and thin. Together, they are less than the size of a
postage stamp. Even so, the dopamine they release sends
signals across large parts of the brain. Dopamine coming
from the substantia nigra helps start movement and
speech.

Conquering Cancer
1.Cancer is a dangerous illness, yet when a tumor remains
confined to one area, surgery can often remove it. Skin
cancer, which is the most widespread type of cancer, is
usually treated through surgical procedures. Melanomas,
considered the most severe kind of skin cancer, may also be
surgically removed, but this is only effective if they are
detected at a very early stage.
2.Additional treatment methods rely on the fact that cancer
cells divide very quickly and therefore must duplicate their
DNA faster than most normal cells. Because of this rapid
activity, they are particularly sensitive to harm caused by
radiation. As a result, many types of tumors can be
successfully treated using precisely directed radiation beams.
3.For many years, medical scientists have tried to create
chemical substances that can destroy cancer cells or at least
reduce how fast they grow. Treating cancer with these
substances is called chemotherapy. In recent years, major
progress has been made in chemotherapy, and some
cancers can now even be cured. However, since most
chemotherapy drugs attack cells that divide rapidly, they also
disrupt division in healthy cells. This leads to severe side
effects for many patients, which is why researchers are very
interested in learning more about cell cycle proteins in
cancer. Many scientists aim to discover highly precise
methods that can eliminate cancer cells while leaving normal
cells unharmed.
4.Gaining control over cancer is still a significant scientific
difficulty, but researchers do have a clear starting point.
Cancer is fundamentally a disease of the cell cycle, and
overcoming it will require a much deeper knowledge of the
mechanisms that regulate cell division.

Conquering Cancer
1.Cancer is a dangerous illness, yet when a tumor remains
confined to one area, surgery can often remove it. Skin
cancer, which is the most widespread type of cancer, is
usually treated through surgical procedures. Melanomas,
considered the most severe kind of skin cancer, may also be
surgically removed, but this is only effective if they are
detected at a very early stage.
2.Additional treatment methods rely on the fact that cancer
cells divide very quickly and therefore must duplicate their
DNA faster than most normal cells. Because of this rapid
activity, they are particularly sensitive to harm caused by
radiation. As a result, many types of tumors can be
successfully treated using precisely directed radiation beams.
3.For many years, medical scientists have tried to create
chemical substances that can destroy cancer cells or at least
reduce how fast they grow. Treating cancer with these
substances is called chemotherapy. In recent years, major
progress has been made in chemotherapy, and some
cancers can now even be cured. However, since most
chemotherapy drugs attack cells that divide rapidly, they also
disrupt division in healthy cells. This leads to severe side
effects for many patients, which is why researchers are very
interested in learning more about cell cycle proteins in
cancer. Many scientists aim to discover highly precise
methods that can eliminate cancer cells while leaving normal
cells unharmed.
4.Gaining control over cancer is still a significant scientific
difficulty, but researchers do have a clear starting point.
Cancer is fundamentally a disease of the cell cycle, and
overcoming it will require a much deeper knowledge of the
mechanisms that regulate cell division.

Conquering Cancer
1.Cancer is a dangerous illness, yet when a tumor remains
confined to one area, surgery can often remove it. Skin
cancer, which is the most widespread type of cancer, is
usually treated through surgical procedures. Melanomas,
considered the most severe kind of skin cancer, may also be
surgically removed, but this is only effective if they are
detected at a very early stage.
2.Additional treatment methods rely on the fact that cancer
cells divide very quickly and therefore must duplicate their
DNA faster than most normal cells. Because of this rapid
activity, they are particularly sensitive to harm caused by
radiation. As a result, many types of tumors can be
successfully treated using precisely directed radiation beams.
3.For many years, medical scientists have tried to create
chemical substances that can destroy cancer cells or at least
reduce how fast they grow. Treating cancer with these
substances is called chemotherapy. In recent years, major
progress has been made in chemotherapy, and some
cancers can now even be cured. However, since most
chemotherapy drugs attack cells that divide rapidly, they also
disrupt division in healthy cells. This leads to severe side
effects for many patients, which is why researchers are very
interested in learning more about cell cycle proteins in
cancer. Many scientists aim to discover highly precise
methods that can eliminate cancer cells while leaving normal
cells unharmed.
4.Gaining control over cancer is still a significant scientific
difficulty, but researchers do have a clear starting point.
Cancer is fundamentally a disease of the cell cycle, and
overcoming it will require a much deeper knowledge of the
mechanisms that regulate cell division.

Conquering Cancer
1.Cancer is a dangerous illness, yet when a tumor remains
confined to one area, surgery can often remove it. Skin
cancer, which is the most widespread type of cancer, is
usually treated through surgical procedures. Melanomas,
considered the most severe kind of skin cancer, may also be
surgically removed, but this is only effective if they are
detected at a very early stage.
2.Additional treatment methods rely on the fact that cancer
cells divide very quickly and therefore must duplicate their
DNA faster than most normal cells. Because of this rapid
activity, they are particularly sensitive to harm caused by
radiation. As a result, many types of tumors can be
successfully treated using precisely directed radiation beams.
3.For many years, medical scientists have tried to create
chemical substances that can destroy cancer cells or at least
reduce how fast they grow. Treating cancer with these
substances is called chemotherapy. In recent years, major
progress has been made in chemotherapy, and some
cancers can now even be cured. However, since most
chemotherapy drugs attack cells that divide rapidly, they also
disrupt division in healthy cells. This leads to severe side
effects for many patients, which is why researchers are very
interested in learning more about cell cycle proteins in
cancer. Many scientists aim to discover highly precise
methods that can eliminate cancer cells while leaving normal
cells unharmed.
4.Gaining control over cancer is still a significant scientific
difficulty, but researchers do have a clear starting point.
Cancer is fundamentally a disease of the cell cycle, and
overcoming it will require a much deeper knowledge of the
mechanisms that regulate cell division.

Conquering Cancer
1.Cancer is a dangerous illness, yet when a tumor remains
confined to one area, surgery can often remove it. Skin
cancer, which is the most widespread type of cancer, is
usually treated through surgical procedures. Melanomas,
considered the most severe kind of skin cancer, may also be
surgically removed, but this is only effective if they are
detected at a very early stage.
2.Additional treatment methods rely on the fact that cancer
cells divide very quickly and therefore must duplicate their
DNA faster than most normal cells. Because of this rapid
activity, they are particularly sensitive to harm caused by
radiation. As a result, many types of tumors can be
successfully treated using precisely directed radiation beams.
3.For many years, medical scientists have tried to create
chemical substances that can destroy cancer cells or at least
reduce how fast they grow. Treating cancer with these
substances is called chemotherapy. In recent years, major
progress has been made in chemotherapy, and some
cancers can now even be cured. However, since most
chemotherapy drugs attack cells that divide rapidly, they also
disrupt division in healthy cells. This leads to severe side
effects for many patients, which is why researchers are very
interested in learning more about cell cycle proteins in
cancer. Many scientists aim to discover highly precise
methods that can eliminate cancer cells while leaving normal
cells unharmed.
4.Gaining control over cancer is still a significant scientific
difficulty, but researchers do have a clear starting point.
Cancer is fundamentally a disease of the cell cycle, and
overcoming it will require a much deeper knowledge of the
mechanisms that regulate cell division.

Tourism in Jamaica
1.Tourism has grown into a more and more essential part of
Jamaica’s economy over the last few decades. It has
strengthened the nation’s economy and created more jobs.
It has also opened many doors for people living in
Jamaica. For instance, in 2012 tourism added nearly $1.3
billion to Jamaica’s economy.
2.Money earned through tourism is a major source that
helps Jamaica’s government pay for economic and social
plans. The government has used tourism tax revenue to
support special programs in education and health services.
Tourism has also supported improvements in the country’s
infrastructure, meaning the basic systems a nation needs
to function well. For example, Jamaica started expanding
its roads and airports, which tourists use when they travel
around the country.
3.In addition to upgrading its infrastructure, Jamaica has also
begun to safeguard some of its important natural
resources. One example is that the country started to
identify and protect its national parks and beaches. Today,
visitors must pay entrance fees to enter these parks, and
this money helps keep them protected. The government
also works to keep the parks and beaches free from
pollution and litter. These actions have helped tourism
because visitors can enjoy a better experience when they
go to these areas.
4.Jamaica still depends greatly on tourism to support its
economy. However, one drawback is the rainy season,
which lasts from May to November. During this period, 25%
of hotel employees lose their jobs because very few tourists
come. This has negatively affected the lives of people who
rely on tourism work in the country.

Tourism in Jamaica
1.Tourism has grown into a more and more essential part of
Jamaica’s economy over the last few decades. It has
strengthened the nation’s economy and created more jobs.
It has also opened many doors for people living in
Jamaica. For instance, in 2012 tourism added nearly $1.3
billion to Jamaica’s economy.
2.Money earned through tourism is a major source that
helps Jamaica’s government pay for economic and social
plans. The government has used tourism tax revenue to
support special programs in education and health services.
Tourism has also supported improvements in the country’s
infrastructure, meaning the basic systems a nation needs
to function well. For example, Jamaica started expanding
its roads and airports, which tourists use when they travel
around the country.
3.In addition to upgrading its infrastructure, Jamaica has also
begun to safeguard some of its important natural
resources. One example is that the country started to
identify and protect its national parks and beaches. Today,
visitors must pay entrance fees to enter these parks, and
this money helps keep them protected. The government
also works to keep the parks and beaches free from
pollution and litter. These actions have helped tourism
because visitors can enjoy a better experience when they
go to these areas.
4.Jamaica still depends greatly on tourism to support its
economy. However, one drawback is the rainy season,
which lasts from May to November. During this period, 25%
of hotel employees lose their jobs because very few tourists
come. This has negatively affected the lives of people who
rely on tourism work in the country.

Tourism in Jamaica
1.Tourism has grown into a more and more essential part of
Jamaica’s economy over the last few decades. It has
strengthened the nation’s economy and created more jobs.
It has also opened many doors for people living in
Jamaica. For instance, in 2012 tourism added nearly $1.3
billion to Jamaica’s economy.
2.Money earned through tourism is a major source that
helps Jamaica’s government pay for economic and social
plans. The government has used tourism tax revenue to
support special programs in education and health services.
Tourism has also supported improvements in the country’s
infrastructure, meaning the basic systems a nation needs
to function well. For example, Jamaica started expanding
its roads and airports, which tourists use when they travel
around the country.
3.In addition to upgrading its infrastructure, Jamaica has also
begun to safeguard some of its important natural
resources. One example is that the country started to
identify and protect its national parks and beaches. Today,
visitors must pay entrance fees to enter these parks, and
this money helps keep them protected. The government
also works to keep the parks and beaches free from
pollution and litter. These actions have helped tourism
because visitors can enjoy a better experience when they
go to these areas.
4.Jamaica still depends greatly on tourism to support its
economy. However, one drawback is the rainy season,
which lasts from May to November. During this period, 25%
of hotel employees lose their jobs because very few tourists
come. This has negatively affected the lives of people who
rely on tourism work in the country.

Tourism in Jamaica
1.Tourism has grown into a more and more essential part of
Jamaica’s economy over the last few decades. It has
strengthened the nation’s economy and created more jobs.
It has also opened many doors for people living in
Jamaica. For instance, in 2012 tourism added nearly $1.3
billion to Jamaica’s economy.
2.Money earned through tourism is a major source that
helps Jamaica’s government pay for economic and social
plans. The government has used tourism tax revenue to
support special programs in education and health services.
Tourism has also supported improvements in the country’s
infrastructure, meaning the basic systems a nation needs
to function well. For example, Jamaica started expanding
its roads and airports, which tourists use when they travel
around the country.
3.In addition to upgrading its infrastructure, Jamaica has also
begun to safeguard some of its important natural
resources. One example is that the country started to
identify and protect its national parks and beaches. Today,
visitors must pay entrance fees to enter these parks, and
this money helps keep them protected. The government
also works to keep the parks and beaches free from
pollution and litter. These actions have helped tourism
because visitors can enjoy a better experience when they
go to these areas.
4.Jamaica still depends greatly on tourism to support its
economy. However, one drawback is the rainy season,
which lasts from May to November. During this period, 25%
of hotel employees lose their jobs because very few tourists
come. This has negatively affected the lives of people who
rely on tourism work in the country.

Profitability and Success
1.Some thinkers in management have claimed that a careful
manager in a profit-driven organization behaves ethically
by focusing entirely on increasing financial returns. Many
others disagree, arguing instead that ethical leadership in
business means acting responsibly toward everyone who
is affected by a company’s activities. This group includes
shareholders; those who own company stock, but is not
limited to them. In this view, leaders act ethically when they
consider what serves the interests of all parties connected
to the business. Moreover, companies that adopt this
broader perspective often achieve stronger financial
results, particularly over extended periods of time.
2.In 1970, Nobel Prize winning economist Milton Friedman
wrote a well-known article in The New York Times
Magazine asserting that the sole “social responsibility of
business is to increase its profits.” This idea became
influential in the business world and shaped thinking in
many business schools. Still, while aiming for profit is
clearly acceptable and even beneficial, managers must
also recognize the environment in which their companies
function and understand how the wealth they generate can
contribute positively to the wider world. Businesses do not
operate in isolation; they exist within a social framework
that allows and supports their activities.
3.As a result, businesses form an unspoken social contract
with society; an understanding that all members cooperate
for shared benefits. While companies work to maximize
returns for shareholders, they must also accept that their
actions have effects on society as a whole. Because
society grants firms the right to operate and incorporate,
businesses have a corresponding responsibility to act in
ways that serve the interests of as many people as
possible, not just investors. Applied to business practice,
this social contract means that a company should
contribute to the community that enables its existence,
creating value for society while also achieving its own
financial success.

Profitability and Success
1.Some thinkers in management have claimed that a careful
manager in a profit-driven organization behaves ethically
by focusing entirely on increasing financial returns. Many
others disagree, arguing instead that ethical leadership in
business means acting responsibly toward everyone who
is affected by a company’s activities. This group includes
shareholders; those who own company stock, but is not
limited to them. In this view, leaders act ethically when they
consider what serves the interests of all parties connected
to the business. Moreover, companies that adopt this
broader perspective often achieve stronger financial
results, particularly over extended periods of time.
2.In 1970, Nobel Prize winning economist Milton Friedman
wrote a well-known article in The New York Times
Magazine asserting that the sole “social responsibility of
business is to increase its profits.” This idea became
influential in the business world and shaped thinking in
many business schools. Still, while aiming for profit is
clearly acceptable and even beneficial, managers must
also recognize the environment in which their companies
function and understand how the wealth they generate can
contribute positively to the wider world. Businesses do not
operate in isolation; they exist within a social framework
that allows and supports their activities.
3.As a result, businesses form an unspoken social contract
with society; an understanding that all members cooperate
for shared benefits. While companies work to maximize
returns for shareholders, they must also accept that their
actions have effects on society as a whole. Because
society grants firms the right to operate and incorporate,
businesses have a corresponding responsibility to act in
ways that serve the interests of as many people as
possible, not just investors. Applied to business practice,
this social contract means that a company should
contribute to the community that enables its existence,
creating value for society while also achieving its own
financial success.

Profitability and Success
1.Some thinkers in management have claimed that a careful
manager in a profit-driven organization behaves ethically
by focusing entirely on increasing financial returns. Many
others disagree, arguing instead that ethical leadership in
business means acting responsibly toward everyone who
is affected by a company’s activities. This group includes
shareholders; those who own company stock, but is not
limited to them. In this view, leaders act ethically when they
consider what serves the interests of all parties connected
to the business. Moreover, companies that adopt this
broader perspective often achieve stronger financial
results, particularly over extended periods of time.
2.In 1970, Nobel Prize winning economist Milton Friedman
wrote a well-known article in The New York Times
Magazine asserting that the sole “social responsibility of
business is to increase its profits.” This idea became
influential in the business world and shaped thinking in
many business schools. Still, while aiming for profit is
clearly acceptable and even beneficial, managers must
also recognize the environment in which their companies
function and understand how the wealth they generate can
contribute positively to the wider world. Businesses do not
operate in isolation; they exist within a social framework
that allows and supports their activities.
3.As a result, businesses form an unspoken social contract
with society; an understanding that all members cooperate
for shared benefits. While companies work to maximize
returns for shareholders, they must also accept that their
actions have effects on society as a whole. Because
society grants firms the right to operate and incorporate,
businesses have a corresponding responsibility to act in
ways that serve the interests of as many people as
possible, not just investors. Applied to business practice,
this social contract means that a company should
contribute to the community that enables its existence,
creating value for society while also achieving its own
financial success.

Profitability and Success
1.Some thinkers in management have claimed that a careful
manager in a profit-driven organization behaves ethically
by focusing entirely on increasing financial returns. Many
others disagree, arguing instead that ethical leadership in
business means acting responsibly toward everyone who
is affected by a company’s activities. This group includes
shareholders; those who own company stock, but is not
limited to them. In this view, leaders act ethically when they
consider what serves the interests of all parties connected
to the business. Moreover, companies that adopt this
broader perspective often achieve stronger financial
results, particularly over extended periods of time.
2.In 1970, Nobel Prize winning economist Milton Friedman
wrote a well-known article in The New York Times
Magazine asserting that the sole “social responsibility of
business is to increase its profits.” This idea became
influential in the business world and shaped thinking in
many business schools. Still, while aiming for profit is
clearly acceptable and even beneficial, managers must
also recognize the environment in which their companies
function and understand how the wealth they generate can
contribute positively to the wider world. Businesses do not
operate in isolation; they exist within a social framework
that allows and supports their activities.
3.As a result, businesses form an unspoken social contract
with society; an understanding that all members cooperate
for shared benefits. While companies work to maximize
returns for shareholders, they must also accept that their
actions have effects on society as a whole. Because
society grants firms the right to operate and incorporate,
businesses have a corresponding responsibility to act in
ways that serve the interests of as many people as
possible, not just investors. Applied to business practice,
this social contract means that a company should
contribute to the community that enables its existence,
creating value for society while also achieving its own
financial success.

Profitability and Success
1.Some thinkers in management have claimed that a careful
manager in a profit-driven organization behaves ethically
by focusing entirely on increasing financial returns. Many
others disagree, arguing instead that ethical leadership in
business means acting responsibly toward everyone who
is affected by a company’s activities. This group includes
shareholders; those who own company stock, but is not
limited to them. In this view, leaders act ethically when they
consider what serves the interests of all parties connected
to the business. Moreover, companies that adopt this
broader perspective often achieve stronger financial
results, particularly over extended periods of time.
2.In 1970, Nobel Prize winning economist Milton Friedman
wrote a well-known article in The New York Times
Magazine asserting that the sole “social responsibility of
business is to increase its profits.” This idea became
influential in the business world and shaped thinking in
many business schools. Still, while aiming for profit is
clearly acceptable and even beneficial, managers must
also recognize the environment in which their companies
function and understand how the wealth they generate can
contribute positively to the wider world. Businesses do not
operate in isolation; they exist within a social framework
that allows and supports their activities.
3.As a result, businesses form an unspoken social contract
with society; an understanding that all members cooperate
for shared benefits. While companies work to maximize
returns for shareholders, they must also accept that their
actions have effects on society as a whole. Because
society grants firms the right to operate and incorporate,
businesses have a corresponding responsibility to act in
ways that serve the interests of as many people as
possible, not just investors. Applied to business practice,
this social contract means that a company should
contribute to the community that enables its existence,
creating value for society while also achieving its own
financial success.